MRDV / Institute for Rural Development / Subsistence agriculture is regarded as a primary strategy adopted by the rural households for increasing their access to food for their families. Food system options for rural households are mainly through own production and purchase from markets. In some cases people require more than what they produce hence they access food through donations and gifts. The main objective of this study was to determine the contribution of subsistence farming to household food system. The specific objectives were to characterize the rural household food system, analyse the contribution by subsistence farming to rural household food system and to suggest possible strategies that can be used to enhance rural household food system. This study was guided by mixed methods in which quantitative and qualitative approaches were used to collect and analyse data that was collected from the households around various aspects of the household food system. Systematic sampling was applied to select the research respondents. A questionnaire was used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. To achieve the overall aim and objectives of the study, data was entered into Microsoft Excel and transferred to Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS) vision 24.0. Various tools of SPSS were used to interpreted and make sense of the data collected. Furthermore, descriptive statistics were computed to understand variables constituting the data. Furthermore, Chi square test was performed, with the latter applied to achieve objective two and to analyze the association between subsistence farming and variables related to household food system. Discourse analysis was used to sort, categorize, combine and then interpret results for the qualitative data collected. Subsistence farming in the study area is characterised by low level of production. The main sources of food for households are markets, subsistence production and transfers from other households or public programmes. The main findings indicate that subsistence farmers spent most of their money on market food rather than on own production. The Chi square test P-value results indicate that there is relationship significant (P<0.1) relationship between subsistence farming and quality of harvest and there is insignificant (p=0.123) relationship between subsistence farming income used for household food consumption. Therefore, subsistence farmers’ households should be provided with resources required for farming to increase productivity in the study area. Furthermore, the attributes and dynamics of subsistence agriculture need to be understood by all households in the subsistence farming sector to advance the sector as a possible solution to food system and food security in the study area. / NRF

Department of Soil Science / PhD (Agric)

MESC / Department of Hydrology and Water Resources / Wetlands are known of their pollution reduction characteristics due to their flat topography and dense vegetation which capture pollutants on the settling sediments. Three processes take place on the captured pollutants in the sediments, the physical, chemical and biological processes, which facilitate the removal of pollutants from the wetlands. This research was carried out in order to assess the Water Quality of wetland downstream of Makhado oxidation ponds and its potential effects on Irrigation Waters by determining the Physical-chemical parameters (pH, Dissolved Oxygen, temperature, electrical conductivity and turbidity); the nutrient levels (Nitrates, phosphates, nitrites, bromide) and heavy metals. The water samples were collected from the effluent discharge of Makhado oxidation ponds (upstream), the middle section of the wetland (midstream) and downstream of the wetland. The climate data for the study was also used assess the contribution to variation in the physical-chemical parameters during their passage through the wetland. The use of waters in the wetland by subsistence farmer’s was also assessed to determine their farmer’s perception on wastewater reuse, sustainability, water quality, health hazards and crop yield. At the discharge and midstream point, the physical parameters tested were found to be mostly outside the target water quality range of irrigation water set out by DWAF but are within the DWAF guidelines for discharge of wastewater. The exceptions were with total dissolved solids which were higher than 25 mg/l guideline value of the said standards. The anions were analysed by Ion chromatography and showed spatial variation in content and seasonality. The nutrients (nitrates, nitrites and phosphates) and chloride were higher than the DWAF guidelines for discharge of wastewater. The heavy metal content in the wetland was analysed by ICP-OES and varied throughout the wetland. The following metals were reduced during their passage in wetland and were within DWAF guidelines: zinc, lead, cadmium and total chromium. Iron and manganese were reduced during the drier season but were above the DWAF guideline values during the wet season. Also the metal contents in the wetland are out of the target water quality range of the same standards bringing forth the risks of toxicity in the wetland. The anion analysis also suggests that the wetland is becoming a nutrient rich environment bringing forth risks of eutrophication. Nitrite concentrations did not conform to the South African viii Water Guidelines on target water quality ranges for irrigation water. Farmers have expressed a positive opinion on wastewater use for irrigation since there are loads of nutrients. The presence of nutrients in wetland may contribute to development of harmful algal blooms.

PhD (Agricultural Economics) / Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness / The high attrition rate of cooperatives in Limpopo Province is a great concern considering that cooperatives globally and in South Africa have been esteemed to play a role in rural development and poverty reduction. The problem of attrition is a threat in the development of our societies. In response to this, the study investigated the formation of cooperatives, influence of social, human capital and household characteristics. The study also assessed the differences that can be used to discriminate cooperatives earning monthly income and those without a monthly income. The main aim of the study was to develop a framework that could be used to create sustainable cooperatives in the future in Limpopo Province. The study was conducted in five districts of Limpopo Province namely: Sekhukhune, Waterberg, Mopani, Capricorn and Vhembe. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire from 146 cooperatives. Key respondents were cooperatives leaders. Focus group data from Mopani district cooperatives was used to provide a background to the researcher in the development of the framework. Focus group discussion information was only used by the researcher in order to understand the cooperative member’s views. Purposive sampling was used to select a sample of 146 cooperatives due to the availability and accessibility of the cooperatives. SPSS analytical tool was used to analyse the data. Models used in the study were Binary logistic, Multinomial and Discriminant analysis. The findings of the study revealed that household characteristics such as gender, member affiliation affected the formation of legitimate cooperatives. Social capital indicators such as access to information and benefits derived by relatives encouraged the need for funding. However human capital indicators were found not to influence the need for external funding. The study also discovered that there were major differences between cooperatives earning a monthly income and those without the income. There were various benefits derived from the cooperatives by members. The study concluded that for cooperatives to be sustainable, focus should be on human capital, extension services and improvement of the level of education. The notion is that an informed, trained and educated cooperative society is the future.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Rural development problems faced by the impoverished communities in the Transkei, South Africa, are numerous, and environmental degradation has already taken much of its toll. By working at a micro-catchment-level both the socio-economic and biophysical appreciation of the land resources were captured as encapsulated in the concept of resource management domains. Participatory decision-making allowed functional land use goals and evaluation criteria to be incorporated into computerised multi-criteria evaluation and multi-objective land use allocation models in order to reach an idealised or more sustainable land use situation. In the execution of the decision-making process seven procedural steps were followed, which are discussed in detail and applied in the case study. Synthesis of the results emphasised the envisaged rural planning potential of the methods used. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In terme van plattelandse ontwikkeling staar talle probleme die behoeftige gemeenskappe van Transkei, Suid-Afrika, in die gesig en omgewingsdegradering neem ongehinderd sy tol. Deur op ‘n mikro-opvangsgebied vlak te werk kon beide die sosio-ekonomiese en biofisiese waarde van die gebied se hulpbronne bepaal word en uitgebeeld word in hulpbron bestuursdomeine. Deur deelnemende besluitneming is funksionele grondgebruiksdoelwitte en evaluasie kriteria gebruik in gerekenariseerde meervoudige kriteria evaluering en veeldoelige grondgebruiksaanwysingsmodelle ten einde die ideale of ‘n meer volhoubare grondgebruik situasie te verkry. Vir die uitvoering van die besluitnemingsproses is van sewe opeenvolgende stappe gebruik gemaak en die uitvoering daarvan word in diepte bespreek in hierdie gevallestudie. Sintese van die resultate het die potensiaal van hierdie beoogde landelike beplanningsmetodes beklemtoon.

The pomegranate fruit is one of the high valued crops, but there is insufficient information regarding the fruit properties in South Africa. The aim of the study was to evaluate the physico-chemical properties as well as total phenols, anthocyanin, antioxidant, organic sugars and acids of cultivar Wonderful on three locations of the Western Cape. This study was conducted on mature pomegranate fruits harvested in the 2012 and 2013 seasons. Fruit weight (g), length (mm), and width (mm), peel/aril colour and total arils weights (g) were measured. Fruits were also analysed for total soluble solids (TSS) or °Brix), titratable acidity (TA) and juice pH. Results of the study showed that there were significant differences in all measured factors with the exception of % aril yield between the three locations. Though varied per season, fruits produced at Bonnievalle had better physical and chemical properties than at the other localities. With the exception of Aril hue angle, all measured parameters had significant interaction effect regardless of locality (P<0.05). Total soluble solids content varied from 16.0–17.3 (°Brix), pH values from 2.7–3.0, titratable acid content varied from 1.3–1.7 and maturity index from 9.7–13.4. The anthocyanin, total phenols and antioxidant were in order of 772–1134; 1611–1834 and 12.57–14.84. Organic acids (Citric and Malic) showed differences while Acetic acid was not significant in all areas and organic sugar (fructose, Glucose and Sucrose) all had significant differences. It can also be concluded that changes in colour of peel and arils of pomegranate (cv. Wonderful) was mostly as a result of seasonal variation as well as growing area as evident by the interaction between both main factors. / Agriculture / M.Sc (Agriculture)

The primary aim of my research was to identify the impacts and adaptation options of climate variability and change on agricultural production in Limpopo province. The following objectives were identified: To understand the impacts of climate variability and change on agricultural production in Limpopo province , To assess the impacts of climate variability and change on agricultural production in Limpopo province and To identify adaptation measures that reduces the impacts of climate variability and change on agricultural production in Limpopo province. A representative sample of 300 farmers aged 16- 65+ years (46 percent males and 54 percent females) participated in the study. The study involved Sekhukhune and Capricorn districts, with 56 percent farmers in Capricorn and 44 percent in Sekhukhune district. The following 11 local municipalities were visited: Elias Motsoaledi, Makhuduthamaga, Fetakgomo, Ephraim Mogale, Tubatse, Lepelle Nkumpi, Blouberg, Aganang, Polokwane, and Molemole. The Limpopo province is one of the poorest provinces in the country, characterized by high unemployment rate, poverty and lack of access to a range of resources that frustrate majority of people ability to secure their livelihoods. In this study the province's economic, biological and physical environment were highlighted. The study further covers the province, s farming enterprises, systems, categories, infrastructure as well as other constraints that maybe facing the emerging farmer in the province. It is assumed that the majority of farmers in both the Capricorn and Sekhukhune districts are using different coping and adaptation strategies in order to increase their crop yields. Literature studies show that climate variability and change adaptation strategies vary from area to area due to agro ecological zones and the harshness of the effects of climate variability and change. It has also been noted that climate change is fast pushing the poorest and most marginalized communities beyond their capacity to respond. This study draws on lessons learned, experiences, and other existing research on climate change impacts and adaptation across the globe. It sets out what is needed to enable people living in poverty to adapt to climate change, and a range of interventions that are available across climate - sensitive sectors. The study has provided a literature review of the impact of climate change on the agricultural sector. In fact, it has documented some of the likely impacts of climate change based on International, continental, regional, national and provincial agricultural sector. The study highlighted the impact of climate change also on various climate - sensitive sectors including understanding water resources, forestry, natural ecosystem human health, infrastructure and coastal zones. This research also confirmed that being a full time farmer, gender, information on climate change, information received through extension services and adaptation to climate change are some of the important determinants of agricultural production, food scarcity and unemployment. A worrying situation is reviewed globally in this study and it can be concluded that climate variability and change is affecting every sector in society and it needs urgent attention. Statistics was used to determine climate variability and change impact on agricultural production. Results indicate that farmers are aware that Limpopo province is getting warmer and drier with increased frequency of droughts, changes in the timing of rains, observed trends oftemperature and precipitation. The study also presented perceived adaptation strategies used by farmers in Limpopo province. Some of their perceived adaptation strategies included: (a) Soil management strategies, (b) Water management strategies and (c) Others like use of subsidies and use of insurance. Other important adaptation options being used by farmers were also discussed in this study including different adaptation measures against colds, heat, frost, abnormal wind, hail, lack of extension support, nematodes, insecticides, worms, temperature and rainfall. The results of this study are potentially valuable to the agricultural sector considering the threats that climate change poses across climate sensitive sectors. / Environmental Sciences / D. Phil. (Environmental Management)

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Technology: Governance and Economic Development, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa. 2015. / South African rural areas are amongst the poorest in the world, as there is still a wide gap in terms of development with their urban neighbours. With an estimated 6.4 million South Africans falling below the national poverty line in 2010, KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) remains the province with the highest number of poor people. The majority of rural dwellers in South Africa and KZN rely on subsistence farming, while others depend on government grants or family members living and working in urban areas to sustain a living. However, the income received is often insufficient to cater for their daily needs. In consonance with the high prevalence of poverty and the stagnation of subsistence farming, this study aims to examine the role of water supply in rural agricultural development in the Ward 19 area of Mtubatuba Municipality, which is situated along the north eastern region of KZN. To accomplish this aim, a mixed research approach with elements of qualitative (interviews) and quantitative (questionnaire) research techniques was used to obtain relevant information. A total of 50 participants took part in this study, all of whom were subsistence farmers in Ward 19 of Mtubatuba Municipality in KwaZulu-Natal. Furthermore, interviews were conducted with three senior officials from the regional office of the Department of Water Affairs in Durban; three staff members from the Mtubatuba Municipality; two individuals from Ward 19; two senior staff members from the Department of Agriculture, Environmental Affairs and Rural Development in Mtubatuba; as well as two senior staff members from Umkanyakude water services provider in Mtubatuba. The study revealed that water shortages have adversely undermined the development and growth of subsistence farming in this poor community. Furthermore, the difficulties experienced by the marginalised people of Ward 19 are typical of many rural areas which have not fully benefitted from transformation in a post-apartheid South Africa. In order to address the defunct subsistence iii farming in this community, the study proposed a well-tailored and effective water resource management approach with the intention of transforming subsistence farming into commercial farming, thus improving the standard of living and reducing poverty to a reasonable level. Furthermore, in recognition that the area under study is dominated by women, the study emphasised the imperativeness of empowering the women of the community as a strategy underpinning rural development.

This research was based on the implementation analysis of the South Africa-China bilateral agreements, specifically the case of the South African Agricultural Technology Demonstration Centre (SAATDC). In this regard, the researcher was of the view that, with implementation analysis, it is possible to identify the particular circumstances that could affect implementation of a particular policy, both in advance of a policy’s adoption or after it is implemented. This research tracked the implementation of the SAATDC bilateral agreement to examine whether this bilateral agreement was effectively implemented or not. There is a need to translate political commitment into a practical programme for successful implementation. Implementation is one of the major problems confronting developing nations, of which South Africa is one. Furthermore the researcher investigated whether the SAATDC bilateral agreement meets necessary pre-conditions of policy implementation, necessary for successful policy implementation, and examines whether these pre-conditions are adequately addressed in the bilateral policy document.Previous research has shown that once these preconditions are met, the potential for successful implementation of a policy increases. There is a need in South Africa to fully exploit opportunities provided through similar Chinese aid projects for the benefit of local workers such as artisans, engineers and project managers by ensuring that bilateral agreements adequately address factors that could undermine South Africa’s ASGISA and JIPSA objectives regarding skills and technology transfer. It is important to investigate whether the bilateral agreement here makes sufficient provision for adequate involvement of South African engineers, artisans and South African companies in the implementation of such Chinese aid programmes or projects. There is a need to enhance the sophistication of local artisans and engineers as required by the ASGISA and JIPSA strategy and objectives. / Public Administration & Management / M. Admin. (Public Administration)

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The main aim of this case study was to research the impact of the introduction of oxen for draught power on Eric Swarts’ Stellenbosch farm. The research objectives were designed to find out if the oxen helped to improve the quality of the soil, to determine their cost-effectiveness (compared to a tractor) and other social and managerial constraints and benefits associated with using them and also to make recommendations for small-scale farmers in developing countries. The literature review revealed that human society faces many serious sustainability challenges from ecosystem degradation and global warming, to massive poverty and social inequality. The global population is growing against a background of decreasing agricultural productivity due to degraded soils and the increased costs of farming. The adoption of farming methods that enhance ecosystem services and depend less on external inputs is therefore essential. Animal traction is still widely used among small-scale farmers in developing countries, but lacks policy and investment support to make it more efficient. There are currently widespread negative opinions about animal traction which regard it as a backward or old-fashioned technology. This research investigated the possibility of animal traction emerging as an affordable, environmentallyfriendly and appropriate technology for small-scale farming. The research is a case study with a qualitative, ethnographic research design in which participant observation was key in gathering research data. A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) was carried out to compare the cost-effectiveness of using oxen to either hiring or buying a tractor. The findings showed that oxen were a more cost-effective means of draught power than a tractor, not only in terms of capital costs but also maintenance and operational costs. The manure from the oxen was both an effective way of supplying crops with essential nutrients and improving soil biodiversity. The introduction of the oxen presented some challenges to the farmer concerning knowledge about how animals work and other managerial challenges, but these were overcome by learning through practice. It was found that the farmer will be able to make significant savings in soil-amendment costs and he can control the quality of the manure to suit his needs. It was concluded that small-scale farmers who choose animal traction over tractors as a means of draught power will realise many advantages in return. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die hoof doelwit van dié gevallestudie was om die impak van die ingebruikneming van osse as trekkrag op Eric Swarts se plaas te Stellenbosch na te vors. Die navorsingsteikens was ontwerp om uit te vind of die beeste gehelp het om die kwaliteit van die grond te verbeter, om hul lonendheid vas te stel (in vergelyking met ’n trekker) asook ander sosiale en bestuursbeperkings en -voordele wat met hul gebruik geassosieer word en ook met voorstelle vir kleinskaalboere in ontwikkelende lande voorendag te kom. Die literatuuroorsig navorsing het ontbloot dat die menslike samelewing met vele volhoubaarheidsuitdagings vanaf ekosistemiese agteruitgang en aardverhitting, tot swaar armoedigheid en sosiale ongelykhede gekonfronteer word. Die wêreld bevolking groei steeds ten spyte van die afname in landboukundige produktiwiteit as gevolg van verlaagde grondkwaliteit en die toenemende landboukoste. Die ingebruikneming van landboumetodes wat ekosistemiese dienste verhoog en minder staatmaak op eksterne insette is dus noodsaaklik. Dieretrekking word steeds algemeen in ontwikkelende landebenut, maar dit ontbreek beleids- en beggingsondersteuning om dit meer doeltreffend te maak. Daar is tans algemeen verbreide negatiewe sienswyse oor dieretrekksag wat dit as agterlike en oudmodiese tegnologie beskou. Dié navorsing het ondersoek ingestel om die moontlikheid van dieretrekking as ’n bekostigbare, omgewingsvriendelike en passende tegnologie vir kleinskaalboerdery vas te stel. Die navorsing is’n gevallestudie met kwalitatiwe, etnografiese navorsingsontwerp waarin deelnemerwaarneming kern is tot die insameling van data. ’n Kostewinsteanalise (KWA) was uitgevoer om die lonenheid van beeste te vergelyk met dié van of die huur of die koop van ’n trekker. Die bevindings het getoon dat beeste ’n lonender wyse van trekkrag as trekkers is, nie net in terme van kapitale koste nie, maar ook onderhouds en bedryfskoste. Die beesmis was beide ’n doeltreffende manier om die gevasse van nodige voedingstowwe te voorsien asook om grondbiodiversiteit te verbeter. Die ingebruikneming van beeste het sekere uitdagings vir die boere ingehou in verband met die kennis van hoe diere werk en ander bestuursuitdagings, maar dié was oorkom deur onderrig uit ondervinding. Daar was bevind dat die boer beduidende besparings kan maak aan grondaanvullingskoste hierdie jaar en dat hy die kwaliteit van die beesmis kan beheer om sy behoeftes dien. Die slotsom is dat kleinskaalboere wat kies om dieretrekking eerder as trekkers as trekkrag te gebruik, sal vele voordele hê.