Thesis (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / The aim of the study was to assess the importance of spatial and temporal variation in diet quality and abundance for determining sustainable stocking rates on commercial, communal and game ranches in a semi-arid savanna, with the ultimate goal of avoiding land degradation in the long term, to provide sustainable livelihoods in rangelands and to make policy that will help in managing the available natural resources in the rangelands. Thus, firstly the effects of grazing, fire, nitrogen and water availability on nutritional quality of grass in semi-arid savanna was assessed. Secondly, spatial and temporal variation in plant quantity and quality among management (commercial, communal and game) types and habitat types (open savanna, rocky, shrubby and pans) and stocking rates in different management types were determined. Thirdly, the quality and quantity of variation inside and outside herbivore exclosures among commercial, communal and game management and habitat types in the semi arid savanna were estimated. Fourthly, faecal profiling was used to assess the effects of different management types on diet quality in semi-arid savanna. Lastly, policy based on the results of the present study was formulated.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Formal systems of environmental management and certification for activities associated with extensive land use, relate mainly to forestry. The emergence of forest certification largely originates from the issue of tropical deforestation and the associated boycott campaigns against tropical timber. At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, a new set of international norms were set in the form of Forest Principles. These were non-binding and together with international initiatives, such as the Tropical Forestry Action Programme and the International Tropical Timber Organisation have failed to decrease deforestation. New efforts to encourage sustainable forestry through forest certification were made by Non Governmental Organisations which collaborated with the private sector in developing new policy instruments. They followed the trend of eco-labelling in an attempt to link green consumers to producers whose aim it is to improve management practices. The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) was established. The FSC system relies on forest management principles and criteria approved by itself and is based on performance standards. The International Standards Organisation (ISO) also developed a management standard based on the principle of continuous improvement. ISO developed the ISO 14001 standard for the certification of Environmental Management Systems which is applicable to any industry concerned with the environment. From questionnaire surveys carried out among a sample of private game ranch owners/managers in the Northern Province, current standards of management were established. It was found that private owners/managers rely mostly on their own experience and knowledge. Information about management on game ranches is rarely available and only major concerns and most visible problems are attended to. Guidelines with standards for an Environmental Management System (EMS) according to the ISO 14000 series were drawn up from the results of the surveys and a literature review. A checklist of principles and criteria which could be used for the certification process was also developed. The final objective is to attain quality game ranch management which is environmentally sensitive, socially aware/beneficial and economically viable. This is crucial for the conservation and preservation of the natural systems in South Africa in which private land owners playa major role. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Formele omgewingsbestuursisteme en sertifisering vir aktiwiteite wat geassosieer word met ekstensiewe grondbenutting, word hoofsaaklik gekoppel met bosbou. Die konsep van sertifisering het tot stand gekom as gevolg van die omstredenheid rondom ontbossing en die gassosieerde sanksies teen tropiese hout. By die Verenigde Nasies Konferensie oor Omgewing en Ontwikkeling in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 is 'n nuwe stel internasionale norme daargestel in die vorm van Bosbeginsels. Hierdie was nie-bindend en saam met internasionale inisiatiewe soos die Tropiese Bos Aksie Program en die Internasionale Tropiese Hout Organisasie het hulle gefaal om ontbossing te verminder. Nuwe pogings om volhoubare bosboupraktyke aan te moedig is aangewend nadat Nie-Regering Organisasies en die privaatsektor saamgewerk het om nuwe beleidsinstrumente te ontwikkel. Hulle het die neiging vir die "eko-etiket" nagevolg in 'n poging om omgewingsbewuste verbruikers in kontak te bring met produseerders wat gemoeid is met verbeterde bestuurspraktyke. Die Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) het tot stand gekom en hulle sisteem sluit bosbestuursbeginsels en kriteria in wat deur hulleself goedgekeur is en gebaseer is op werkverrigtingstandaarde. Die Internasionale Standaarde Organisasie (ISO) het ook 'n bosbestuurstandaard opgestel gebaseer op die beginsel van kontinue verbetering. ISO het die ISO 14001 standaard opgestel vir Omgewingsbestuursisteme wat van toepassing gemaak kan word op enige industrie wat gemoeid is met die omgewmg. Na afhandeling van vraelys opnames onder privaat wildsplaas eienaars/bestuurders, is daar vasgestel wat die standaard van bestuur tans in die Noordelike Provinsie is. Privaat eienaarsIbestuurders maak meestal staat op hulle eie ondervinding en kennis. Inligting oor die bestuur van die wildsplase is nie geredelik beskikbaar nie en slegs die mees sigbare en grootste probleme word bestuur. 'n Riglyn met standaarde vir 'n Omgewingsbestuursisteem volgens ISO is opgestel vanaf resultate van die opnames en 'n literatuurstudie asook 'n "Checklist" wat beginsels en kriteria insluit wat gebruik kan word in die sertifiseringsproses is ook ontwerp. Die finale doel is om kwaliteit bestuur te bewerkstellig wat omgewingsensitief, sosiaal bewus/voordelig en ekonomies lewensvatbaar is. Laasgenoemde is uiters belangrik aangesien privaat grondeienaars 'n sleutelrol speel in die bewaring en preservering van die natuurlike sisteme in Suid-Afrika.

The pomegranate fruit is one of the high valued crops, but there is insufficient information regarding the fruit properties in South Africa. The aim of the study was to evaluate the physico-chemical properties as well as total phenols, anthocyanin, antioxidant, organic sugars and acids of cultivar Wonderful on three locations of the Western Cape. This study was conducted on mature pomegranate fruits harvested in the 2012 and 2013 seasons. Fruit weight (g), length (mm), and width (mm), peel/aril colour and total arils weights (g) were measured. Fruits were also analysed for total soluble solids (TSS) or °Brix), titratable acidity (TA) and juice pH. Results of the study showed that there were significant differences in all measured factors with the exception of % aril yield between the three locations. Though varied per season, fruits produced at Bonnievalle had better physical and chemical properties than at the other localities. With the exception of Aril hue angle, all measured parameters had significant interaction effect regardless of locality (P<0.05). Total soluble solids content varied from 16.0–17.3 (°Brix), pH values from 2.7–3.0, titratable acid content varied from 1.3–1.7 and maturity index from 9.7–13.4. The anthocyanin, total phenols and antioxidant were in order of 772–1134; 1611–1834 and 12.57–14.84. Organic acids (Citric and Malic) showed differences while Acetic acid was not significant in all areas and organic sugar (fructose, Glucose and Sucrose) all had significant differences. It can also be concluded that changes in colour of peel and arils of pomegranate (cv. Wonderful) was mostly as a result of seasonal variation as well as growing area as evident by the interaction between both main factors. / Agriculture / M. Sc (Agriculture)

The majority of people in the mining areas in Limpopo, South Africa, depend on agriculture to sustain their livelihoods; however, the mines have also become important because they create better employment opportunities. The purpose of the study was to analyse the impact of mining on agriculture and socio-economic aspects in the rural communities of the Greater Tubatse Local Municipality. The objectives were to profile the socio-demographic characteristics of the community members surrounding a chrome mine; to determine the impact of mining activities on agricultural production (crop and livestock production); to determine factors influencing farmers’ perceived impact of mining activities on agricultural production; and to ascertain the socio-economic (natural capital, financial capital, social capital, human capital, physical capital) impact of mining activities on the local communities. A quantitative research approach was used to conduct the study using a survey design. Six villages surrounding a chrome mine in the Greater Tubatse Local Municipality in Limpopo participated in the study. Stratified and random sampling approaches were used to select participants from each village to constitute a sample of 347. A total of 347 survey questionnaires were administered through face-to-face interviews but only 309 were correctly and fully completed. SPSS version 24 was used to analyse the data. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics, the ordered logistic regression model, Wilcoxon signed ranks test and binomial test. The majority (50.8%) of the respondents were male. Sepedi was the most spoken language (97.7%). Most (63.3%) of the respondents were in the age range of 18-30, and 76.4% were single in terms of marital status. A large proportion of the respondents (70.6%) could read and write because they had secondary education. Land ownership findings show that more than half (58.1%) of the respondents had farm plot sizes between 4.6 and 10.5 ha. Average farm plot size was 4.1 ha, and only a few (1.3%) of the plots were above 9 ha. The average family size was about 7 people (actual 6.7). A large proportion (77.7%) of the respondents were dependent on government social grants (pensioners, disability and orphans) as the main source of income. Regarding the impact of mines on agriculture, the study found that in general, the mines did not have a negative impact on the production of livestock and crops, except for donkeys and groundnuts, which were negatively affected. In addition, the findings also show that a large proportion (92.6%) of the respondents lost their agricultural land (mainly grazing land) because of increased mining activities, although the loss of land did not affect production. With regard to the socioeconomic impact of mining activities on the surrounding communities, the study found that the mines had a negative impact on natural capital, physical capital, financial capital and social capital. However, the impact on human capital was positive. It is recommended that mining companies in the study area provide the necessary support to improve the socioeconomic status of the rural communities surrounding the mines in Greater Tubatse Local Municipality. / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

Investments in productive assets by broad-based black economic empowerment (BEE) enterprises in South Africa (SA) during the 1990s have been constrained, in part, by a lack of access to capital. Even if capital can be sourced, BEE businesses often face a liquidity problem, as conventional, equally amortized loan repayment plans do not take into account the size and timing of investment returns, or there are lags in the adjustment of management to such new investments. The aim of this dissertation, therefore, is to compare five alternative loan products to the conventional fixed repayment (equally amortized) loan (FRL) that lenders could offer to finance BEE investments in productive assets that are faced with liquidity stress, namely: the single payment non-amortized loan (SPL); the decreasing payment loan (DP); the partial payment loan (PPL); the graduated payment loan (GPL); and the deferred payment loan (DEFPLO-2). This is done firstly by comparing loan repayment schedules for the six loans using a loan principal of R200 000, repaid over 20 years at a nominal contractual annual interest rate of 10%. Secondly, data from five actual BEE loan applications to ABSA Bank and Ithala in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) during 2003 are used to compare how the FRL, SPL, DP, GPL, and DEFPLO-l, affect investment profitability, and both the borrower's and the lender's cash-flows, assuming that the lender sources funds from a development finance wholesaler. Results for the first part of the study show that the SPL has smaller initial annual repayments than the FRL (R20 000 versus R23 492) that ease liquidity stress in the early years after asset purchase, but requires a nominal balloon repayment of both interest and principal in year 20 of R220 000. The SPL is also the most costly loan, with total nominal and real repayments that are R130 162 and R43 821, respectively, more than the FRL. The PPL has the lowest total nominal and real repayments assuming that the borrower can make the nominal balloon repayment in year 5 of R202 173. If not, the ending balance of the loan in year 4 would have to be refinanced at current market interest rates. In this situation, the PPL uses very similar financing terms to that of the variable rate long-term loans already used in SA, and thus may not be a useful option to consider for BEE investments facing a liquidity problem. Interest rates may have risen over the last four years of the loan, encouraging lenders to add a premium into the interest rate for the refinanced loan, which could worsen the liquidity position of the BEE enterprise. The DP requires higher initial nominal annual loan repayments (R6 508 more than the FRL) that do not ease the liquidity problem in the early years of operation. The DP loan, however, has total nominal and real repayments that are R59 838 and R23 118, respectively, less than the FRL. A GPL with diminishing, finite interest-rate subsidy seems to have the most potential to ease the BEE investment's liquidity stress. The 17YRGPL used to buy land had total nominal and real repayments that were R84 634 and R67 726 (after subsidy), respectively, less than the FRL. If the GPL was used to purchase machinery-type assets, then the 6YRGPL would have required total nominal and real repayments of R13 957 and R12 596, respectively, less than the FRL. Finally, the DEFPLO-2 loan required a total nominal repayment of R531 128 (R61 290 more than the FRL) and a total real repayment of R345 358 (R26 095 more than the FRL). Clearly, the GPL and DEFPLO-2 loan repayment schedules can partly resolve the liquidity problem in the early years (assuming no major income shocks), although the DEFPLO-2 plan requires higher total repayments than the FRL. The question remains whether lenders would be prepared to implement these two financing plans for BEE investments in productive assets, where the funds to finance the diminishing, finite interest-rate subsidy or the deferment would be sourced, and how the interest-rate subsidy would affect asset values. In the second part of the study, the profitability of the five proposed BEE investments in KZN during 2003 was compared for the five loan products using the Net Present Value (NPV) and the Internal Rateof- return (lRR) capital budgeting procedures. The loan terms, interest rates, principal and characteristics of each BEE firm are different with current rates of return on equity varying by business type. Companies A (five-year loan) and C (10-year loan) are agribusinesses with a higher expected current rate of return of 8% on machinery investments, while companies B (eight-year loan), D (15-year loan), and E (20-year loan) invest in farmland with a lower expected current annual rate of return of 5%. The five business plans may not be representative in a statistical sense of all BEE firms in KZN, but were used because they were readily available. Initially it was assumed that donor/grant funds from a development finance wholesaler were lent to an intermediary (like a commercial bank), which in turn, could finance the five investments using any of the five alternative loans, with the lender's repayment to the wholesaler being via a FRL. It was then assumed that the lender could repay its borrowed funds using the same loans, or combinations of them, that it had granted to these companies. Results show that GPLs and DEFPLs can resolve the liquidity problem associated with investments like land in the early years after purchase provided that projected business performance is adequate, while the SPL and GPL are preferred for BEE projects with stronger initial cash-flows like machinery investments. The study also shows that the loan product that best improves the borrower's liquidity is not always best suited to the lender. In most cases, the GPL suited the borrower, but in four of the five cases, the lender would prefer the SPL and to repay the wholesaler using the SPL. The SPL, however, is unlikely to be used, given the large negative real net cash-flows that it generates when the final payments are due. Recent SA experience with the GPLs (interest rate subsidies funded by private sector sugar millers via Ithala) and the DEFPLs (via the Land Reform Empowerment Facility (LREF) which is a wholesaler of funds in SA) suggests that there is scope to alleviate the liquidity problem if a wholesaler of funds can offer such terms to private banks and venture capital investors who then on-lend to finance BEE asset investments that are otherwise considered relatively high credit risks. This would shift the liquidity problem away from the client to the wholesaler of the funds, but requires access to capital at favourable interest rates. Such capital could be sourced from dedicated empowerment funds earmarked by the private sector, donors and the SA government. The lesson for policymakers is that broad-based BEE could be promoted in other farm and non-farm sectors in SA using similar innovative loan products to complement cash grant funds via financial intermediaries, bearing in mind the limitations of the GPL and DEFPL - such as how to finance the subsidy or deferment, and the impact of income shocks. Donor and National Empowerment Fund capital could be used to allocate grants to provide previously disadvantaged individuals with own equity and also to fund finite, diminishing interest-rate subsidies via GPLs, or to fund DEFPLs (many LREF loans have been leveraged by a cash grant component). This could create an incentive for public/private partnerships, as public/donor funds could be then used to attract private sector funds to finance broadbased BEE investments in SA that satisfy empowerment criteria. The five case studies did not show how the GPLs and DEFPLs could make all profitable (positive net present value) but financially infeasible (returns do not match the size and timing of the lender's financing plan) BEE investments in productive assets under the FRL feasible, except for Company E that showed a positive NPV and IRR when the 19YRGPL was used. They did, however, show how the alternative loans could improve liquidity for investments with either strong or poor cash-flows. The financiers consulted to source case studies in KZN in 2003 at the time of the study could not provide the researcher with any profitable, but financially infeasible, BEE business plans. This raises some concern about how effective these empowerment loan products could be in the future as there is uncertainty over how many potential BEE investments in productive assets in SA are likely to be profitable but financially infeasible. Further research is thus needed to assess the impact of these alternative loans on a wider range of broad-based BEE investments, particularly non-farm projects, than considered in this dissertation. / Thesis (M.Agric.Mgt.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

Irrigation farmers in the Lower Orange (Kakamas and Boegoeberg) and Lower Crocodile rivers (between Nelspruit and Komatipoort) areas in South Africa were surveyed during October 2003 in order to study whether water marketing has promoted efficiency in water use. This study is a follow-up on research undertaken by Armitage (1999) in the Lower Orange River area and Bate et al. (1999) in the Lower Crocodile River area. Factors associated with future investment in irrigation farming were also studied in the Lower Orange River Irrigation Scheme. Econometric procedures used included principal component analysis, and logit and ridge regression. Results from the two areas will be discussed separately. Econometric results for the Lower Orange River farmers indicate that purchasers of water rights produce lucrative export grapes and horticultural crops with relatively less raisin, wine or juice grapes and less field crops; are more specialised in production (table grapes); have more livestock (probably liquidity factor) and have a less negative view of the five-year water license review period. The water market has facilitated a transfer of water use from relatively lower value crops to relatively higher value crops, and also promoted the use of more advanced irrigation technology. An investment model using Ridge Regression indicates that the following variables are associated with increased future investment in irrigation farming; higher expected profitability and lower levels of risk perception and risk aversion (Arrow/Pratt). Results confirm that farmers who are more risk averse are likely to invest less in the future as can be expected from theory. Policies that increase risk in agriculture will have a significant negative effect on future investment in irrigation. What is significant from the results is that irrigation farmers in the Lower Orange River area are highly risk averse (down-side). Results also show that farmers who feel that water licenses are not secure expect to invest less in the future. The latter effect is thus amplified, as farmers appear to be highly risk averse. This has important policy implications, and measures should be taken to improve the perceived security of water licenses. This could be achieved by keeping farmers more informed about the practical implications of the New Water Act (NWA) (Act 36 of1998) and, specifically, water licenses. In the Lower Crocodile River area, almost all the water trades (permanent and rentals) observed in this study were from farmers above the gorge to farmers below the gorge. It is concluded that in the transfer of water some attributes in the purchasing area such as lower production risk (sugar cane) and lower financial risk and better cash flow (bananas and sugar cane) were more important than the expected income per cubic meter of water. Water supply in this area is highly irregular, while sampled farmers were again found to be extremely risk averse especially as far as down-side risk is concerned. The average water price in this area in recent years (2002 to 2003) was between R2000 and R3000 per ha (l ha = 8000 cubic meters). Buyers have large farms and are progressive farmers that purchase (and rent) from many sellers (or lessors). It is concluded that information on water transfers (sale prices and rents) is asymmetrical. Few permanent transfers have taken place in the Crocodile River in recent years. It is concluded that there are reasons why transfers at present are not processed, such as excess demand for water (due to the irregular flow of the Crocodile River, and role players should discuss these reasons and possible solutions before further action is taken. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)- University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

Thesis (MSc (Geography and Environmental Studies))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / In the past, development was allowed in agricultural areas which would not be acceptable under current planning policy. There is a growing need to develop and maintain highly productive and ecologically stable agricultural systems. One approach to encourage better land management and utilisation is the international certification of a farm’s production practices.

This study evaluated the contribution of urban agriculture (community gardens) to food security in Emfuleni Local Municipality in Gauteng province. The objectives were to determine the socio-demographic characteristics of farmers in urban community gardens; followed by determining contribution of urban community gardens to food security with specific reference to food availability, food accessibility, food utilisation and food stability; evaluating the factors that influence food utilisation of the farmers in urban community gardens and lastly conducting SWOT analysis of urban community gardens. The sample size of 254 farmers was randomly selected from 418 farmers located in 30 urban community gardens in Emfuleni Local Municipality. Furthermore, the study adopted purposive sampling for deliberately selecting one key informant from 30 urban community gardens that participated in the study. Quantitative research approach was employed using a survey design. Data was collected through face-to-face interviews using a semi-structured survey questionnaire. Quantitative data was analysed by the use of Statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 23.0. The analysis included both descriptive (mean, standard deviation, standard error or mean and others) and inferential statistics and table frequency. Qualitative data was analysed using code and themes; and converted into frequencies. The study revealed that there were more females (71.3%) that participated in the community gardens than males (28.7%); only 23.2% of youth (<35 years) participated in community gardens. Majority (59.4%) of respondents spoke Sesotho while majority (53.5%) were not married (single). The main source of income of most (78.7%) respondents was farming activities precisely urban community gardens. The study found that community gardens contribute to food availability with regards to providing freshly produce vegetables, high consumption of vegetables and ensured that families of the beneficiaries ate sufficient vegetables produced from the gardens. Although there is uncertainty among some of the respondents that vegetables produced were not sufficient, only few respondents were concerned. Majority (96.7%) of community gardens produced vegetables for selling and consumption. It was therefore found that, in relation to food accessibility, an average of 47% did not experience anxiety, uncertainty and had consumed sufficient quantities of vegetables from the community gardens. With regards to food utilisation, majority of the respondents were consuming vegetables as a relish whereas others consumed vegetables for various reason such salad, health reasons and others as presented in the results section. On vegetable consumption pattern, it is concluded that gender, age group, level of education, participation period in community gardens, family size, number of family member working, number of working hours in the community garden per day, number of day working in the community garden per month and annual income from community garden influenced vegetables consumption pattern of the respondents (utilisation) in the study area. Coping strategies which were mostly adopted by the respondents to ensure food stability were: reducing vegetable intake to ensure that children ate enough, purchasing of vegetables on credit, reducing vegetables in the daily meals and borrowing money to buy vegetables. Some of the challenges that hindered vegetable production in urban community gardens were theft of garden tools and crops produce, lack of fencing and eating of vegetables by stray animals. / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

The current interest in conservation agriculture (CA) technologies is a result of the need to reduce excessive land degradation in most crop producing areas as well as to enhance sustainable food production. Cover crops that are usually grown under CA to provide soil cover, may offer secondary benefits, depending on the farming system. The concept of growing cover crops is a relatively new phenomenon to smallholder farmers. Production of large biomass yields and weed suppression from cover crops were major challenges affecting success and uptake of CA technologies by smallholder irrigation farmers. Coupled with this, low soil fertility limit maize productivity and reduce water use efficiency on smallholder irrigation schemes in what is largely a water strained agro-ecology in South Africa. While cover cropping can increase maize productivity, benefits of different types of mulch are not well understood, leading to challenges in selecting the most appropriate cover crop species to grow in the Eastern Cape Province (EC) of South Africa (SA) which has a warm temperate climate. With respect to any new technology, smallholder farmers are more interested in the economic benefits. Cover crops have been defined as leguminous or non-leguminous plants used for ground cover in various temporal and special configurations used in crop or animal production systems. The purpose of these cover crops is to improve on or more of the following: soil erosion, availability and cycling of N, P, K, Ca and other nutrients, soil moisture and water infiltration, and weed or pest control (Eilitta et al., 2004).. Improvement of animal or human diet may be additional goals. This definition accommodates diverse systems which may include intercrop and sole-cropping systems. In the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, a government initiative has promoted the growing of winter cover crops in smallholder irrigation schemes (Allwood, 2006). In other parts of Africa, legume food crops have been simultaneously grown with cereal staples to improve both soil cover and human diet (Eilitta et al., 2004). Winter experiments were undertaken in 2007 and 2008 to evaluate biomass accumulation, C and N uptake, weed suppression and response to fertilization. Winter cover crops planted included; oats (Avena sativa), grazing vetch (Vicia dasycarpa), faba bean (Vicia faba), forage peas (Pisum sativum) and lupin (Lupinus angustifolius). After cover crops were terminated, the effects of residues on weeds, fertility, moisture conservation and maize productivity were undertaken in the 2007/08 and 2008/09 summer seasons. Field studies were also done in the 2007/08 and 2008/09 summer seasons to investigate effects of strip intercropping patterns (3:2; 4:2; and 6:2 patterns) of maize (cv. PAN 6479) with mucuna (Mucuna pruriens) or sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea) on maize productivity and summer cover crop biomass production. In a separate experiment effects of relay intercropping sunnhemp, mucuna and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) on biomass accumulation and maize productivity were investigated. Decomposition, N and P release from both winter cover crops and summer cover crops were also assessed in laboratory incubation experiments. Oats, grazing vetch and forage peas cover crops produced mean dry mass of 13873 kg/ha, 8945.5 kg/ha and 11073 kg/ha, respectively, while lupin had the lowest dry mass of 1226 kg/ha over the two seasons. Oats responded to fertilization while, there was little or no response from the other winter cover crops. Oats and grazing vetch also reduced weed density by 90 % and 80 % respectively while lupin only reduced weed density by 23 % in relation to the control plots. Nitrogen uptake was 254 kg N/ha for oats while it was 346 kg N /ha for grazing vetch. In the subsequent summer season, grazing vetch and forage pea residues significantly (P < 0.01) improved soil inorganic N. Oat and grazing vetch residues significantly (P < 0.05) reduced weed dry masss and weed species diversity compared to plots with lupin residues and the control. Lack of maize fertilization tended to reduce maize yields but not for maize grown on grazing vetch residues. From an economic perspective, grazing vetch resulted in the highest returns. Decomposition of winter cover crops was much faster for grazing vetch followed by forage peas and lastly oats. Oats had 40 % ash free dry mass remaining after 124 days while grazing vetch and forage peas had 7 % and 16 % respectively. Maximum net mineralized N and P were greater for grazing vetch (84.8 mg N/kg; 3.6 mg P/kg) compared to forage peas (66.3 mg N/kg; 2.7 mg P/ha) and oats (13.7 mg N/kg; 2.8 mg P/kg). In the strip intercropping trials, sunnhemp achieved the highest biomass yield of 4576 kg/ha in the 3:2 pattern while mucuna achieved 1897 kg/ha for the same strip pattern. The 3:2 strip intercropping pattern slightly depressed yields, however, yield reduction was more pronounced in the first season where water stress was experienced. Growing maize on previous cover crop strips failed to increase maize productivity probably due to weed growth during the fallow reducing mineral N in these strips. Decomposition was faster in sunnhemp leaves and mucuna compared to sunnhemp stems. Sunnhemp stems had about 65 % of ash free dry mass remaining after the end of the experiment at 132 days while just over 10 % of mucuna and sunnhemp leaves still remained. Mucuna mineralized 60 mg N/kg and 3.2 mg P/kg and sunnhemp mineralized 45 mg N/kg and 3.5 mg P/kg. Relay intercropping did not significantly (P > 0.05) affect maize biomass and grain yield. Sorghum experienced the largest drop in biomass when relay-intercropped with maize. Mucuna resulted in the highest N uptake (271 kg N/ha) in sole cropping while sorghum had the lowest (88 kg N/ha). Grazing vetch results in high biomass yields with minimal fertilizer application in a warm-temperate climate. Grazing vetch mulch is also the most cost effective mulch for better early weed control, improving soil mineral N status, water conservation and ultimately enhanced maize productivity in smallholder irrigation maize-based systems. The 3:2 pattern maximizes summer cover crop biomass yields compared to the 6:2 and 4:2 patterns. However, the 3:2 pattern may slightly depress yields in a water stressed environment. Relay intercropping mucuna, sunnhemp and sorghum into a maize crop at 42 days after maize sowing has no effect on maize productivity while cover crop biomass yields are low. Having a long winter fallow period after maize harvesting, a common practice in the study area, reduces the positive impact of legume cover crops on soil mineral N. Results suggest that winter cover crops may result in weed control, soil fertility and maize yield improvement benefits while a long fallow period may cancel-out these benefits for summer cover crops. Grazing vetch is a cost effective cover crop that produces high maize yields with minimal fertilizer input. Maize growing on oat mulch requires more fertilizer application than crops growing on grazing vetch mulch. Conservation agriculture systems in which summer cover crops are grown alongside the maize crop with a long winter fallow period do not produce the intended CA benefits.

Backyard gardens has been identified as one of the possible solutions to some of the issues surrounding poverty alleviation in the Bojanala Platinum District Municipality. The main objective of the study was to determine the economic contribution of backyard gardens in alleviation of poverty in rural communities of Bojanala Platinum District Municipality in the North West Province, South Africa. The study used purposive sampling for data collection from the study respondents which enabled the researcher to select a sample with experience and knowledge about the study variables. The questionnaire used as data collection instrument was pretested, validated and subjected to reliability test to improve the efficiency of the use of the questionnaire. The collected data was sorted, coded and analysed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) Version 23.0 software. Frequency count and percentage were used to summarize the data into tables and graphs. The linear multiple regression model specification was employed to examine the demographic and socio-economic factors (predictors) that influence the generation of income from backyard gardens. Multinomial logistics regression model was also used to determine factors influencing the respondents’ objectives for the Backyard gardens, while the logit regression model was used to analyse determinants of the proportion of backyard land used for backyard farming by respondents/growers. The findings of the study are that: more females (68.2%) were involved in the study than males (31.8%); youth involved in the study were 27.7%; the majority (60.4%) of respondents are in the age group of 41-70 years of age; majority (69.5%) of respondents had matric education, 20.9% had tertiary education, and 3.6% had below matric education whilst 5.9% had no formal education; most of respondents are unemployed (86.6%); 32.2% of respondents are dependent on pension as their source of income, 12.3% depend on grant, 15% depend on monthly salaries, 0.5% depend on investments, 2.3% depend on remittance, and 18.6% depend on piece jobs, whilst 19.1% reported other source of income; majority (99%) of respondents reported that backyard garden contribute a significant proportion to both household income and food security, whilst 1.0% did not agree; 40% of the respondents could not manage to farm the whole garden area, while 60% were able to farm the entire garden area; the majority (70.9%) of respondents provide own solutions to their backyard garden challenges; majority (53.7%) of respondents reported that extension officers never visited their gardens, whilst 46.3% had extension visits on weekly, monthly and quarterly bases; 23.2% of the respondents created permanent employment while 34.1% of them created seasonal employment. The results of the OLS regression analysis showed that gender of respondents, with formal employment, ownership of a farm besides the Backyard garden (BYG) by respondent, farmers’ years of experience in farming and annual income from the sale of livestock by respondent had positive and statistically significant influence on the annual income from Backyard garden with all other factors held constant. The results of the multinomial regression analyses show that a unit change in number of years involved in backyard gardening (YRSBG) does not significantly change the odds of being classified in the 4th category of the outcome variable (Produce to help the needy, the poor, to feed the orphans, and for home based-cares around their communities = 4) relative to the first or second or third categories of the outcome variable, while controlling for the influence of the others. On the other hand a unit change in being employed (EMPLO) and involved in non-farm activities (NFA) do significantly change the odds of being classified in the 4th category of the outcome variable relative to the second or third categories of the outcome variable, while controlling the influence of the others. The Logit coefficient estimate associated with Age, Income per month from BYG, Engage in non-farm activities, Years of experience in gardening, Proportion of produce consumed, having a business plan, Own a farm besides BYG and to lease your backyard have statistically significant impact on respondents area of cultivation for BYG with other factors held constant. Policies to improve BYG in the district should be informed by the aforementioned variables from the results of the inferential analyses. / Agriculture / M. Sc. (Agriculture)