Ein Teilziel des Projektes KLAPS ist eine auf die Projektregion ausgerichtete Analyse der Ozonbelastung in Abhängigkeit klimatischer Einflussfaktoren. Im vorliegenden Bericht werden die zeitlichen Verläufe der Vorläufersubstanzen und der Einfluss meteorologischer Bedingungen auf die Ozonkonzentration im 21. Jahrhundert untersucht. Die Ergebnisse verweisen auf einen möglichen Anstieg der Ozonkonzentration in den Sommermonaten der nächsten Jahrzehnte allein durch die Auswirkungen des Klimawandels. Entscheidend für die zukünftige Höhe der Ozonkonzentration ist allerdings die Entwicklung der Emissionen im Projektgebiet.

Airflow into, out of, and within buildings is fundamental to their design and operation as it can affect occupant health and comfort, building durability, and energy consumption. This thesis works to develop the understanding of airflow patterns and pressure regimes in high-rise multi-unit residential buildings which are both unique and complex due to the combination of their height, typical inclusion of operable windows, and compartmentalized layout. Specific attention is directed towards the performance of corridor pressurization based ventilation systems which are used pervasively within industry to ventilate and control contaminant transfer in these buildings. Airflow is caused by pressure differences which for buildings are created by the driving forces of wind, stack effect, and mechanical ventilation systems. These airflows are resisted by the air permeance (i.e. airtightness) of building elements including the exterior enclosure and interior compartmentalizing elements. Using an experimental program at a case study building, this thesis assesses the interaction of these driving forces of airflow with the physical building to create the airflow patterns for a typical high-rise multi-unit residential building. Perflourocarbon tracer (PFT) testing was performed to measure in-service airflows into and out of the suites. This testing found that the air change rates of upper suites are significantly higher than that of lower suites and that most suites receive small fractions of modern ventilation rates or are over ventilated. Airflow measurements of the supply of ventilation air to each corridor indicate that these low flow rates are in part due to leakage of air from the supply duct. The PFT testing also found that significant airflow occurred from the parking garage below the building into the occupied building spaces indicating significant potential for transfer of harmful air contaminants. The air permeance of the exterior enclosure and interior compartmentalizing elements were measured using neutralized fan pressurization and depressurization techniques and found to be within typical ranges. In particular this testing found that only 20% of the flow paths out of the corridor were to the adjacent suites through the suite entrance doors and that flows to the elevator shaft and stairwells could create a significant inefficiency in the ventilation system. A long-term monitoring program was implemented at the case study building primarily to monitor exterior environmental conditions including wind and exterior temperature and to correlate these with measured pressure differences. A strong correlation was found between building pressure and exterior temperature. Nearly 70% of the theoretical stack effect pressure was measured to act across the corridor to suite pressure boundary which creates a significant pressure differences to be overcome by the ventilation system, likely contributing to the uneven distribution of ventilation rates. Both wind and stack effect pressures were found to often be of similar or greater magnitude than mechanically induced pressure differences and thus can overwhelm the ventilation system. Overall, the corridor pressurization based ventilation system at the case study building does not effectively or efficiently ventilate the building and also does not provide sufficient control of air contaminants. As the case study building was found to be relatively representative of a typical multi-unit residential building, the findings from this building can be extended to many other buildings. Effective ventilation and airflow control in multi-unit residential buildings likely requires suite compartmentalization and direct supply of ventilation via ducted or in-suite systems.

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate air quality in the James Bay neighbourhood of Victoria, BC, Canada, and determine the effects of emissions from cruise ships and ferries on local air quality. A combination of field monitoring and air quality modeling conducted during the 2007 cruise ship season in Victoria is used to achieve this objective. Pollutants examined include nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10). Field monitoring provides long-term average concentration levels throughout the area, while the California Puff Model (CALPUFF) is used to predict concentrations from ferry and cruise ship sources at shorter time periods (1-hour and 24-hour). The two methodologies used for this research quantify air quality in James Bay and establish a baseline of concentration levels which can be referred to during any future air quality studies in the area. Results show possible, yet infrequent, exceedences of Capital Regional District and World Health Organization 1-hour NO2 and 24-hour SO2 air quality guidelines in the study domain. The potential implications of these exceedences on health of residents will be assessed by the Vancouver Island Health Authority.

Aerosol emissions from diesel combustion and other activities in rail yards can affect the health of urban populations. Fine particulate (PM[subscript 2.5]) concentrations near the Inman and Tilford rail yards in Atlanta, Georgia, are the highest measured in the state. The rail yard complex is surrounded by homes, schools, businesses and other industries. The impact of the aerosol emissions from these rail yards on local concentrations of PM[subscript 2.5] was quantified. Specifically, black carbon and PM[subscript 2.5] fuel-based emission factors from the rail yards were estimated by carbon balance using high time-resolution monitoring, a BC and PM[subscript 2.5] emissions inventory was estimated and dispersion modeling was applied to assess the impact of the rail yard activities on local air quality and the cost and benefits of upgrading locomotive engines with cleaner technologies was assessed. Further, baseline information that will allow a later evaluation of the improvement of local air quality as locomotives operating in the rail yards are upgraded was generated, and a composition profile of the rail yard aerosols was developed using chemical speciation techniques. These results found that activities from locomotives in the Inman and Tilford Rail yards lead to and an average emission factor of 6.0 ± 0.5 g of PM[subscript 2.5] per gallon of fuel and are responsible for increases in annual average concentrations of approximately 1.3 µg/m³ of PM[subscript 2.5] as far as 1 km from the perimeter of the rail yard complex. Approximately 11.7 tons of BC and 26 tons of PM[subscript 2.5] per year were emitted from the rail yards in 2011. The rail yards were found to be important sources of hydrocarbon-like organic aerosols (HOA) and black carbon from fuel (BCf). Upgrading the engines at the rail yards would decrease PM[subscript 2.5] emissions by about 9 t/year, reducing PM[subscript 2.5] concentrations around 0.5±0.1 µg/m³ as far as 1 km from the perimeter of the rail yard complex and producing monetized health benefits of approximately 24 million dollars per year.

Sensitivity analysis based on a chemical transport model (CTM) serves as an important approach towards better understanding the relationship between trace contaminant levels in the atmosphere and emissions, chemical and physical processes. Previous studies on ozone control identified the high-order Decoupled Direct Method (HDDM) as an efficient tool to conduct sensitivity analysis. Given the growing recognition of the adverse health effects of fine particulate matter (i.e., particles with an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 micrometers (PM2.5)), this dissertation presents the development of a HDDM sensitivity technique for particulate matter and its implementation it in a widely used CTM, CMAQ. Compared to previous studies, two new features of the implementation are 1) including sensitivities of aerosol water content and activity coefficients, and 2) tracking the chemical regimes of the embedded thermodynamic model. The new features provide more accurate sensitivities especially for nitrate and ammonium. Results compare well with brute force sensitivities and are shown to be more stable and computationally efficient. Next, this dissertation explores the applications of HDDM. Source apportionment analysis for the Houston region in September 2006 indicates that nonlinear responses accounted for 3.5% to 33.7% of daily average PM2.5, and that PM2.5 formed rapidly during night especially in the presence of abundant ozone and under stagnant conditions. Uncertainty analysis based on the HDDM found that on average, uncertainties in the emissions rates led to 36% uncertainty in simulated daily average PM2.5 and could explain much, but not all, of the difference between simulated and observed PM2.5 concentrations at two observations sites. HDDM is then applied to assess the impact of flare VOC emissions with temporally variable combustion efficiency. Detailed study of flare emissions using the 2006 Texas special inventory indicates that daily maximum 8-hour ozone at a monitoring site can increase by 2.9 ppb when combustion is significantly decreased. The last application in this dissertation integrates the reduced form model into an electricity generation planning model, and enables representation of geospatial dependence of air quality-related health costs in the optimization process to seek the least cost planning for power generation. The integrated model can provide useful advice on selecting fuel types and locations for power plants.

Die Veröffentlichung analysiert die Ursachen der NO2-Belastung in Sachsen und prognostiziert deren Entwicklung. Die aktualisierte Version des Handbuchs der Emissionsfaktoren des Straßenverkehrs (HBEFA 3.1) ist eine der Datengrundlagen. Hauptverursacher von NO2-Grenzwertüberschreitungen in sächsischen Städten ist der Kfz-Verkehr. Die sächsischen Daten von Verkehrsstationen im Zeitraum von 1995 bis 2009 bestätigen den bundesweit abnehmenden Trend. An hoch belasteten Straßen sind weitere dauerhafte und/oder temporäre Maßnahmen erforderlich, um den NO2-Grenzwert bis spätestens 2015 einzuhalten. Die Erneuerung der Kfz-Flotte reicht dafür nicht aus. Als sofort wirkende Maßnahme hat auch unter Berücksichtigung des neuen HBEFA 3.1 die Umweltzone ihre Berechtigung. Die Festlegung von wirksamen Maßnahmen erfordert eine individuelle Planung.

Feinstaub kleiner 2,5 Mikrometer (PM2,5) ist ein neuer Parameter zur Beurteilung der Luftqualität. Ziel- und Grenzwerte für PM2,5 wurden mit der Novellierung der EU-Luftqualitätsrichtlinie 2008 zusätzlich zu denen für Feinstaub kleiner 10 Mikrometer (PM10) festgelegt. Die größten sächsischen Quellen für PM2,5 sind Straßenverkehr und Kleinfeuerungsanlagen für feste Brennstoffe. Industrie und Landwirtschaft sind weitere Quellen. Der Anteil von PM2,5 am PM10 ist bei den Jahresmittelwerten stabil. Deshalb können für die Beurteilung der Luftqualität an geringer belasteten Orten auch die bisher gemessenen PM10-Daten mit herangezogen werden. Der ab 2015 geltende Grenzwert für PM2,5 ist in Sachsen bisher nicht überschritten worden. Die erstmals für die ganze Fläche Sachsens modellierte Belastung hat für die Prognosejahre 2015 und 2020 ebenfalls keine Hinweise auf Grenzwertüberschreitungen ergeben. Das nationale Ziel für die Minderung der durchschnittlichen Exposition der Bevölkerung bis 2020 stellt noch einmal höhere Anforderungen an die Luftqualität.

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Thesis (Ph.D.); Submitted to the University of California, Berkeley, CA (US); 1 Sep 2003. / Published through the Information Bridge: DOE Scientific and Technical Information. "LBNL--54222" Fine, James. USDOE. Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy. Office of Natural Gas and Petroleum Technology through the National Petroleum Technology Office (US) 09/01/2003. Report is also available in paper and microfiche from NTIS.