Os biolubrificantes têm incrementado progressivamente a sua importância sobre os lubrificantes derivados do petróleo devido às rigorosas regulamentações governamentais, o esgotamento das reservas de petróleo e especialmente pelo alto impacto e efeito tóxico dos óleos petroquímicos no ambiente. Os ésteres de óleos naturais podem ser usados como biolubrificantes e são obtidos por transesterificação dos triacilgliceróis com álcoois superiores. A transesterificação enzimática de óleos com álcoois metílico e etílico é um processo muito estudado para a produção de biodiesel, porém outros ésteres podem ser obtidos a partir de aceptores de acila de tamanho de cadeias carbônicas maiores, tais como os álcoois butílico e isoamílico ou misturas de diversos álcoois como o subproduto resultante destilação do bioetanol (óleo fúsel). Neste contexto, o presente trabalho de tese teve como objetivo a obtenção de ésteres com potencial lubrificante por transesterificação enzimática de óleo de palmiste com álcoois superiores. Os ensaios foram efetuados em regime descontínuo (reator de tanque agitado) e em regime contínuo (reator de leito empacotado) utilizando como biocatalisadores as lipases de Burkholderia cepacia e Pseudomonas fluorescens imobilizadas em suportes híbridos de SiO2-?CD e SiO2-HEC numa temperatura fixa de 45°C. Foram testados os efeitos da razão molar óleo: álcool etílico, butílico, isoamílico e óleo fúsel simulado (mistura de álcoois) (1:4 a 1:12), tempos de reação em batelada (24h a 72h) e tempos espaciais em fluxo contínuo (4 a 14h) na conversão, produtividade e a qualidade dos ésteres. Os resultados mostraram bom desempenho das lipases e conversões totais foram alcançadas. No entanto, foi possível observar o efeito do tamanho da cadeia do aceptor de acila, no excesso requerido e no tempo de reação, obtendo-se os melhores resultados para o processo descontínuo com razões molares de 1:6 e 72h para álcool etílico, 1:6 e 48h para ésteres butílicos, 1:4 e 48h para álcool isomílico e óleo fúsel simulado. No processo contínuo, o melhor desempenho foi determinado para razões molares de 1:8 e tempo espacial de 10h para etanol, 1:6 e 8h para butanol, 1:4 com 6h e 8h para isoamílico e óleo fúsel simulado, respectivamente. Em termos gerais, produtividades mais elevadas foram atingidas em regime de fluxo contínuo e especificamente com álcool de isoamila e óleo fúsel (111,10 e 130,18 mg de éster.gcatalisador-1.h-1). Com relação à qualidade dos produtos obtidos nas reações que forneceram elevadas conversões foi constatado baixos teores de monoacilgliceróis (<=1%) e ausência de diacilgliceróis. As viscosidades cinemáticas a 40 °C, confirmaram o elevado grau de transesterificação do óleo de palmiste modificando a viscosidade inicial do óleo de 30,13 mm2.s-1 para valores na faixa entre 3 a 6 mm2.s-1. O índice de viscosidade variou entre 114 e 150 e a estabilidade oxidativa (período de indução) entre 22 e 37 min (9 e 20 h, método Rancimat). Os resultados obtidos foram bastante satisfatórios e contribuíram para o estabelecimento de condições reacionais e operacionais para a produção enzimática de ésteres com potencial uso como lubrificantes, tanto em regime descontínuo como contínuo utilizando óleo de palmiste e álcoois e misturas de álcoois superiores. / Biolubricants have progressively increased their importance on oil-based lubricants due to stringent government regulations, the depletion of oil reserves and especially the high impact and toxic effect of petrochemical oils on the environment. Natural fatty acid alkyl esters can be used as biolubricants and are obtained by transesterification of triacylglycerols with higher alcohols. The enzymatic transesterification of oils with methyl and ethyl alcohols is a much-studied process for the production of biodiesel. However, other esters may be obtained using higher chain acyl acceptors such as butyl and isoamyl alcohols or mixtures thereof as the fusel oil, resulting from the production of bioethanol. In this context, the present thesis aimed to obtain esters with lubricating potential by enzymatic transesterification of palm kernel oil with higher alcohols. Transesterification runs were performed under batch mode (stirred reactor) and continuous flow (packed bed reactor) using as biocatalysts the lipases from Burkholderia cepacia and Pseudomonas fluorescens immobilized on hybrid matrixes SiO2-?CD and SiO2-HEC at 45 °C. The effects of oil to ethyl, butyl, isoamyl alcohol and synthetic fusel oil (1: 4 to 1:12) molar ratios, batch reaction times (24h to 72h) and special times (4 to 14 h) were tested in the conversion, productivity and quality of final esters. The results showed good lipase performance and 100% bulk conversions were achieved. However, it was possible to observe the effect of the acyl acceptor chain on the required excess and on the reaction time, obtaining the best results for batch process with molar ratios of 1: 6 and 72 h for ethyl alcohol, 1: 6 and 48 h for butyl, 1: 4 and 48 h for isoamyl alcohol and synthetic fusel oil. In general terms, better productivities were obtained under continuous flow, particularly with isoamyl alcohol and fusel oil (111.10 and 130.18 mg of ester.g catalyst-1.h-1). Regarding the product quality, low monoacylglycerol contents (<=1% ) and absence of diacylglycerols were found in products obtained under the best reaction conditions. The kinematic viscosities at 40 °C confirmed the high degree of transesterification of palm kernel oil by modifying its initial viscosity from 30.13 mm2 s -1 to a value in the range of 3 to 6 mm2 s -1, the viscosity index between 114 and 150 and an oxidative stability (induction period) between 22 and 37 min (9 and 20 h, Rancimat method). The results obtained were very satisfactory and contributed to the establishment of reactional and operational conditions for the enzymatic production of esters with potential use as lubricants both in discontinuous and continuous flow mode using palm kernel oil and alcohols and mixtures of higher alcohols.

L’étude des propriétés physico-chimiques des matières grasses constitue une demande mondiale croissante liée à l’augmentation constante de leur utilisation comme source d'énergie et pour l'alimentation. Une bonne connaissance de leurs propriétés thermophysiques et de leur comportement de phases est nécessaire pour la production, l'utilisation efficace de ces matières grasses et le développement des processus d'extraction au niveau du raffinage et du stockage. Des données d'équilibre solide-liquide peuvent être utilisées pour améliorer les procédés existants, et également pour le développement des nouveaux procédés de séparation. Ainsi, le point d'éclair est une propriété importante qui doit être observée pendant le stockage, le transport et la production de composés inflammables, tels que le biodiesel. Ce travail vise à étudier l'équilibre solide-liquide de mélanges binaires constitués d'alcools gras, d’acides gras et d’esters éthyliques. Il porte aussi sur l'évaluation du point d’éclair de mélanges d'esters éthyliques, constituants majoritaires du biodiesel, et de l'éthanol, présent à des niveaux résiduels dans le biodiesel. Les points d’éclair des esters éthyliques mais également des mélanges binaires d'esters éthyliques et d’éthanol, ont été déterminés expérimentalement. Un modèle empirique de prédiction des points d’éclair des biodiesels en fonction de leur composition et de leur teneur en éthanol a été proposé. Les diagrammes de phases solide-liquide des mélanges binaires d'alcool gras + alcool gras ou d’alcools gras + acide gras ont été déterminés expérimentalement par analyse calorimétrique différentielle (DSC). Cette étude permet de caractériser les réactions eutectique, péritectique et métatectique, en utilisant une vitesse de chauffe linéaire ou une méthode de Stepscan DSC. Des mesures de diffraction rayons X et de microscopie optique de contrôle de la température ont été appliquées pour compléter la compréhension des diagrammes de phases. L'effet de la pression sur l'équilibre solide-liquide a aussi été mesuré pour les mélanges binaires d’esters éthyliques ou d'alcools gras en utilisant un microscope optique couplé à une cellule à haute pression qui permet d’augmenter la pression jusqu'à 80 MPa sur une large gamme de température. Les modèles thermodynamiques Margules 2 et 3-suffix et NRTL ont été utilisés pour décrire la ligne du liquidus des systèmes présentant un point péritectique, alors qu’un modèle thermodynamique prédictif a permis de modéliser l'ESL en fonction de la pression. Dans les deux cas, on a observé un ajustement satisfaisant par rapport aux données expérimentales. / The study on the physicochemical properties of fatty materials has acquired a growing importance, mainly due to the incentive of their use in energy and nutrition. The efficient production and use of fatty compounds requires a good knowledge of their properties and phase behavior that are necessary for development of processes, especially in production steps such as extraction and refining, but also during storage of the final products. Solid-liquid equilibrium data can be used to improve or propose new separation processes. Also the flash point is an important property that must be considered during storage, transportation and production of flammable compounds, such as biodiesel. This work aimed to study the solid-liquid equilibrium of binary mixtures consisting of fatty alcohols, fatty esters or fatty acids, and to evaluate the flash point of mixtures of ethyl esters, the major constituents of biodiesels, and ethanol, also present in biodiesel in residual levels. Flash points of ethyl esters, and also of the binary mixtures of ethyl esters with ethanol were determined experimentally. An empirical model for predicting the flash point of biodiesels as a function of composition and ethanol content was proposed. The solid-liquid phase diagrams of binary mixtures of fatty alcohol + fatty alcohol or fatty alcohols + fatty acid were determined experimentally by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), using a linear heating rate, or by a stepscan DSC method, with the aim of investigating the occurrence of the eutectic, peritectic and metatectic reactions. X-ray diffraction and optical microscopy with temperature control techniques were applied to complement the understanding of the phase diagrams. The effect of pressure on the solid-liquid equilibrium was investigated for the binary mixtures of ethyl esters or fatty alcohols using an optical microscope coupled to a high pressure cell which allows the pressure increase up to 80 MPa. Margules 2 and 3-suffix and NRTL thermodynamic models were used for describing the liquidus line of the systems that presented peritectic point, and a predictive thermodynamic model was used to model the ESL function of pressure, which in both cases, gave a satisfactory fit compared to the experimental data.

Os biolubrificantes têm incrementado progressivamente a sua importância sobre os lubrificantes derivados do petróleo devido às rigorosas regulamentações governamentais, o esgotamento das reservas de petróleo e especialmente pelo alto impacto e efeito tóxico dos óleos petroquímicos no ambiente. Os ésteres de óleos naturais podem ser usados como biolubrificantes e são obtidos por transesterificação dos triacilgliceróis com álcoois superiores. A transesterificação enzimática de óleos com álcoois metílico e etílico é um processo muito estudado para a produção de biodiesel, porém outros ésteres podem ser obtidos a partir de aceptores de acila de tamanho de cadeias carbônicas maiores, tais como os álcoois butílico e isoamílico ou misturas de diversos álcoois como o subproduto resultante destilação do bioetanol (óleo fúsel). Neste contexto, o presente trabalho de tese teve como objetivo a obtenção de ésteres com potencial lubrificante por transesterificação enzimática de óleo de palmiste com álcoois superiores. Os ensaios foram efetuados em regime descontínuo (reator de tanque agitado) e em regime contínuo (reator de leito empacotado) utilizando como biocatalisadores as lipases de Burkholderia cepacia e Pseudomonas fluorescens imobilizadas em suportes híbridos de SiO2-?CD e SiO2-HEC numa temperatura fixa de 45°C. Foram testados os efeitos da razão molar óleo: álcool etílico, butílico, isoamílico e óleo fúsel simulado (mistura de álcoois) (1:4 a 1:12), tempos de reação em batelada (24h a 72h) e tempos espaciais em fluxo contínuo (4 a 14h) na conversão, produtividade e a qualidade dos ésteres. Os resultados mostraram bom desempenho das lipases e conversões totais foram alcançadas. No entanto, foi possível observar o efeito do tamanho da cadeia do aceptor de acila, no excesso requerido e no tempo de reação, obtendo-se os melhores resultados para o processo descontínuo com razões molares de 1:6 e 72h para álcool etílico, 1:6 e 48h para ésteres butílicos, 1:4 e 48h para álcool isomílico e óleo fúsel simulado. No processo contínuo, o melhor desempenho foi determinado para razões molares de 1:8 e tempo espacial de 10h para etanol, 1:6 e 8h para butanol, 1:4 com 6h e 8h para isoamílico e óleo fúsel simulado, respectivamente. Em termos gerais, produtividades mais elevadas foram atingidas em regime de fluxo contínuo e especificamente com álcool de isoamila e óleo fúsel (111,10 e 130,18 mg de éster.gcatalisador-1.h-1). Com relação à qualidade dos produtos obtidos nas reações que forneceram elevadas conversões foi constatado baixos teores de monoacilgliceróis (<=1%) e ausência de diacilgliceróis. As viscosidades cinemáticas a 40 °C, confirmaram o elevado grau de transesterificação do óleo de palmiste modificando a viscosidade inicial do óleo de 30,13 mm2.s-1 para valores na faixa entre 3 a 6 mm2.s-1. O índice de viscosidade variou entre 114 e 150 e a estabilidade oxidativa (período de indução) entre 22 e 37 min (9 e 20 h, método Rancimat). Os resultados obtidos foram bastante satisfatórios e contribuíram para o estabelecimento de condições reacionais e operacionais para a produção enzimática de ésteres com potencial uso como lubrificantes, tanto em regime descontínuo como contínuo utilizando óleo de palmiste e álcoois e misturas de álcoois superiores. / Biolubricants have progressively increased their importance on oil-based lubricants due to stringent government regulations, the depletion of oil reserves and especially the high impact and toxic effect of petrochemical oils on the environment. Natural fatty acid alkyl esters can be used as biolubricants and are obtained by transesterification of triacylglycerols with higher alcohols. The enzymatic transesterification of oils with methyl and ethyl alcohols is a much-studied process for the production of biodiesel. However, other esters may be obtained using higher chain acyl acceptors such as butyl and isoamyl alcohols or mixtures thereof as the fusel oil, resulting from the production of bioethanol. In this context, the present thesis aimed to obtain esters with lubricating potential by enzymatic transesterification of palm kernel oil with higher alcohols. Transesterification runs were performed under batch mode (stirred reactor) and continuous flow (packed bed reactor) using as biocatalysts the lipases from Burkholderia cepacia and Pseudomonas fluorescens immobilized on hybrid matrixes SiO2-?CD and SiO2-HEC at 45 °C. The effects of oil to ethyl, butyl, isoamyl alcohol and synthetic fusel oil (1: 4 to 1:12) molar ratios, batch reaction times (24h to 72h) and special times (4 to 14 h) were tested in the conversion, productivity and quality of final esters. The results showed good lipase performance and 100% bulk conversions were achieved. However, it was possible to observe the effect of the acyl acceptor chain on the required excess and on the reaction time, obtaining the best results for batch process with molar ratios of 1: 6 and 72 h for ethyl alcohol, 1: 6 and 48 h for butyl, 1: 4 and 48 h for isoamyl alcohol and synthetic fusel oil. In general terms, better productivities were obtained under continuous flow, particularly with isoamyl alcohol and fusel oil (111.10 and 130.18 mg of ester.g catalyst-1.h-1). Regarding the product quality, low monoacylglycerol contents (<=1% ) and absence of diacylglycerols were found in products obtained under the best reaction conditions. The kinematic viscosities at 40 °C confirmed the high degree of transesterification of palm kernel oil by modifying its initial viscosity from 30.13 mm2 s -1 to a value in the range of 3 to 6 mm2 s -1, the viscosity index between 114 and 150 and an oxidative stability (induction period) between 22 and 37 min (9 and 20 h, Rancimat method). The results obtained were very satisfactory and contributed to the establishment of reactional and operational conditions for the enzymatic production of esters with potential use as lubricants both in discontinuous and continuous flow mode using palm kernel oil and alcohols and mixtures of higher alcohols.

Quando aplicada em bebidas alcoólicas, a radiação ionizante pode ser usada para descontaminação de malte ou esterilização de mostos e tem sido proposta sua aplicação na aceleração do envelhecimento. Devido à internacionalização da cachaça, alguma confusão tem surgido sobre a sua identidade e a do rum. Este trabalho teve como propósito identificar, quantificar e comparar as substâncias químicas responsáveis pelo aroma de amostras de cachaça de alambique e de rum comercial, por meio de análises instrumentais e sensoriais. Pode-se afirmar haver forte correlação entre a concentração dos compostos voláteis analisados com a dose de radiação aplicada (0, 150 e 300Gy), em todas as amostras. De acordo com os testes triangulares, apenas para aroma, todos os provadores puderam distinguir nas amostras não irradiadas e irradiadas com 300Gy, a cachaça envelhecida do rum e a cachaça não envelhecida do rum, porém, não foram observadas diferenças entre a cachaça não envelhecida e a envelhecida. Os resultados da Análise Descritiva Quantitativa mostraram que as amostras não irradiadas de cachaça não envelhecida e as do rum diferiram entre si em relação aos atributos de aroma definidos como álcool, vinagre, baunilha, citros, melão, condimento, vegetal e grama, mas não em relação aos atributos caramelo e maçã. As amostras de cachaças não envelhecidas não irradiadas e irradiadas (300Gy) e as de rum não irradiadas e irradiadas (300Gy) diferiram entre si em relação aos atributos de aroma definidos como maçã, caramelo, vinagre, baunilha, citros, melão, condimento, vegetal e grama, mas não em relação ao aroma de álcool. De acordo com os resultados da cromatografia gasosa/olfatometria foi encontrada diferença significativa entre cachaça e rum não irradiados; cachaça não irradiada e cachaça irradiada (300Gy); e rum não irradiado e irradiado (300Gy), quando foram comparados seus aromas. / The irradiation process has being presented as an alternative technique in food preservation. When apply on beverages, radiation is mainly used for malt decontamination or sterilization of musts and had been proposed also to accelerate aging. Some confusion over rum and cachaça identities has arisen due to the internationalization of cachaça. This research aims to identify, quantify and compare the effect of gamma radiation on the aroma of the Brazilian spirit with rum, irradiated and non irradiated, by instrumental and sensory analysis. Results showed that the content of volatile compounds presented strong correlation with the radiation dose (0, 150 and 300Gy) for all the samples. According to Triangle Test for aroma, all the judges could distinguish among non irradiated and irradiated samples (300Gy), aged cachaça from rum and non aged cachaça from rum, but they couldn\'t distinguish aged cachaça from non aged cachaça. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the results from the quantitative descriptive analysis showed that non irradiated non aged cachaça and rum were different in their alcohol, vinegar, vanilla, citrus, melon, spice, vegetal and grass except caramel and apple aroma attributes. Non irradiated cachaça and irradiated cachaça (300Gy); and non irradiated rum and irradiated rum (300Gy) were different in their apple, caramel, vinegar, vanilla, citrus, melon, spice, vegetal and grass except alcohol aroma attributes. According to the gas chromatography/olfatometry results, significant difference was found among non irradiated cachaça and rum; non irradiated cachaça and irradiated cachaça (300Gy); and non irradiated rum and irradiated rum (300Gy) when their aromas were compared.

A eletroforese capilar (CE) é uma técnica poderosa de separação que explora as diferenças na mobilidade de espécies iônicas sob efeito do campo elétrico. Não permite, contudo, separação de misturas de moléculas neutras, possível mediante formação de complexos com carga, derivatização química ou cromatografia eletrocinética micelar (MEKC). A derivatização eletroquímica tem sido usada em combinação com HPLC, entre outras técnicas, mas não ainda com CE e para fins quantitativos, como proposto e demonstrado nesta dissertação, em que se enfoca, como sistemas modelo, álcoois primários de cadeia curta e se recorre a sistema em fluxo designado de EC-CE-C4D, que consiste de uma célula eletroquímica acoplada com equipamento de eletroforese capilar provido de detector de condutividade sem contato direto com os eletrodos. O sistema EC-CE-C4D, inicialmente concebido para efetuar pré-concentração e redissolução eletroquímica de metais seguida de separação eletroforética, possibilitou também o monitoramento de produtos com carga, formados em processos eletrocatalíticos, fato que inspirou a investigação da aplicabilidade, também do sistema à derivatização eletroquímica de analitos neutros em iônicos ou ionizáveis. Inicialmente, a oxidação de etanol foi avaliada por voltametria cíclica em eletrodos de ouro, paládio e platina policristalinos, nos meios ácido, neutro e alcalino. Maior formação de ácido acético se deu sobre platina em meio ácido (pH = 2,3). Entre os tampões avaliados por simulação (PeakMaster 5.1) para a separação dos carboxilatos, o TRIS/HCl (pH = 8,6) foi favorável em termos de resolução, rapidez e sensibilidade. Após a eletrooxidação da amostra sobre Pt a 1,6 V vs. Ag/AgCl por 60 s seguida de transferência de nanolitros dos produtos formados para o capilar por injeção hidrodinâmica, o meio ácido é trocado pelo tampão de corrida com auxílio de microbombas controladas por computador. A eficiência da conversão eletroquímica dos álcoois em carboxilatos, de 16% para etanol e propanol nas condições adotadas, apesar de não muito eficiente, proporcionou boa repetibilidade e limites de quantificação ao redor de 5 10-5 mol L-1 para etanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol e 1-pentanol, ou seja, cerca de 20 vezes melhores que os reportados para MEKC. As curvas analíticas para os 4 álcoois apresentaram boa linearidade (R > 0,996) e a boa separação entre os picos permitindo determinações quantitativas simultâneas. Como exemplo de aplicação a amostras reais, demonstrou-se a determinação quantitativa de etanol em cerveja Pilsen convencional (teor alcoólico 4,5% vol.) e sem álcool (teor alcoólico <0,5% vol.), diluídas de 1000 vezes e 100 vezes, respectivamente. A repetibilidade das análises foi muito boa (~6% DPR, n = 40), indicando a estabilidade do sistema automático e ausência de envenenamento da superfície do eletrodo. Resultados ainda melhores foram obtidos utilizando 1-propanol como padrão interno para a determinação de etanol. Comparação dos resultados da dosagem alcoólica obtida com o sistema EC-CE-C4D e por CG-FID não apresentou diferença significativa utilizando um intervalo de confiança de 95 %, demonstrando a efetividade e concordância da nova combinação de técnicas. Este trabalho pioneiro, aliando derivatização eletroquímica com a eletroforese para a quantificação de espécies neutras, abre perspectivas de pesquisa não só para aprofundamento e otimização da análise de álcoois, como para a derivatização de outras espécies neutras na faixa de pH comum em CE, como aldeídos e açúcares. / Capillary electrophoresis (CE) is a powerful separation technique which exploits the differences in the mobility of ionic species under the effect of electric field. However, it does not allow the separation of mixtures of neutral molecules, and alternatives like formation of charged complexes, chemical derivatization and micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) have been proposed. Electrochemical derivatization has been combined before with HPLC, among other techniques, but not yet with CE and for quantitative purposes, as proposed and demonstrated in this Masters Thesis, focusing as model systems, short chain primary alcohols, using a flow system, designated EC-EC-C4D, composed of an electrochemical cell coupled with a capillary electrophoresis equipment provided with conductivity detector without direct contact with the electrodes. The EC-CE-C4D system, originally proposed to perform electrochemical pre-concentration and stripping of metals followed by electrophoretic separation, also enabled the monitoring of charged products formed in electrocatalytic processes, inspiring the application of the system to electrochemical derivatization of uncharged analytes into ionic or ionizable ones. Initially, the ethanol oxidation was evaluated by cyclic voltammetry on gold, palladium and platinum polycrystalline electrodes, in acid, neutral and alkaline medium. Larger formation of acetic acid was observed on platinum in acid medium (pH = 2.3). Among the buffers evaluated by simulation (PeakMaster 5.1) for separation of carboxylates, aiming to compromise between resolution, speed and sensitivity, TRIS / HCl (pH 8.6) was favorable. After the sample electrooxidation on Pt at 1.6 V vs. Ag/AgCl for 60 s is replaced automatically (by computer controlled micropumps) by running buffer, followed by the hydrodynamic injection into the capillary of products formed, the acid medium is replaced by running buffer with help of computer controlled micropumps. The efficiency of the electrochemical conversion of alcohols into carboxylates, 16% for ethanol and propanol at the given conditions, although not very efficient, but showed good repeatability and rendered quantification limits around 5 10-5 mol L-1 for ethanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol and 1-pentanol the 4 alcohols, about 20 times better for MEKC. The analytical curves for the four alcohols, showed good linearity (r > 0.996) and the separation between peaks allowed simultaneous quantitative determinations. As an example of application to real samples, the quantitative determination of ethanol in Pilsen conventional beer (alcohol content 4.5% vol.) and non-alcoholic beer (alcohol content <0.5% vol.) was carried out after 1000-fold and 100 fold dilution, respectively. The repeatability of the analysis was very good (~6% RSD, n = 40), indicating the stability of the system and no poisoning of the electrode. Even better results were obtained using 1-propanol as an internal standard for the determination of ethanol. Comparison of results obtained with the CE-CE-C4D system and by GC-FID showed no significant difference for a confidence interval of 95%, demonstrating the effectiveness and consistency of the new combination of techniques. This proof of concept work of the combination of electrochemical derivatization with electrophoresis for quantification of neutral species opens perspectives not only for the optimization of the analysis of alcohols, but for research on the derivatization of other neutral species in the pH range typical for CE, like aldehydes and sugars.

Since the middle of the 20th century, significant interest has evolved from the scientific community towards the polypropionate family of marine natural products. A number of these compounds have been shown to possess significant biological activity, and this property, as well as their structural complexity, has driven numerous efforts towards their synthesis. The first chapter provides an introduction into the world of polypropionates, with a discussion on synthetic studies into a number of members of the tridachiapyrone family. Fundamental synthetic concepts utilised in this thesis towards the preparation of polyketides are also described, with a focus on their application towards the synthesis of 9,10-deoxytridachione, anti tridachiahydropyrone and syn tridachiahydropyrone. Chapter 2 describes the work undertaken towards the total synthesis of 9,10-deoxytridachione. The novel tandem conjugate addition-Dieckmann condensation of complex enones developed previously in the Perkins group was used to generate anti methylated cyclohexenones as key synthetic intermediates. The conversion of the cyclohexenones into the corresponding cyclohexadienes via allylic alcohols was attempted, utilising a Grignard-mediated reaction to achieve the selective 1,2-reduction. Studies into the Grignard-mediated reduction were also undertaken on seven additional cyclohexenones, in order to investigate the utility and scope of the reaction. The extension of the methodology previously developed for the synthesis of cyclohexenones is the subject of Chapter 3. This section describes investigations into the synthesis of stereochemically-diverse cyclohexenones from complex enones. The conjugate addition-Dieckmann condensation strategy was extended successfully towards the synthesis of a syn methylated cyclohexenone, which allowed the synthesis of the proposed true structure of tridachiahydropyrone to be pursued. The methodology developed in Chapter 3 was utilised in Chapter 4 to synthesise a model system of syn tridachiahydropyrone. A comparative analysis of the NMR data of the syn model, an anti model and anti tridachiahydropyrone with the natural product indicated that the true structure of tridachiahydropyrone may indeed have syn stereochemistry. The synthesis of syn tridachiahydropyrone was attempted, and to this end a suitable cyclohexanone was successfully synthesised. However, the subsequent methylation-elimination cascade failed to furnish the desired syn methylated cyclohexenone, producing only an anti methylated cyclohexanone. The stereochemistry of the methylation was deduced using high and low variable temperature NMR coupled with selective irradiation NOESY.

This thesis describes the use of rational redesign to modify the properties of the enzyme Candida antarctica lipase B. Through carefully selected single-point mutations, we were able to introduce substrate-assisted catalysis and to alter the reaction specificity. Other single-point mutations afforded variants with greatly changed substrate selectivity and enantioselectivity. Mutation of the catalytic serine changed the hydrolase activity into an aldolase activity. The mutation decreased the activation energy for aldol addition by 4 kJ×mol-1, while the activation energy increased so much for hydrolysis that no hydrolysis activity could be detected. This mutant can catalyze aldol additions that no natural aldolases can catalyze. Mutation of the threonine in the oxyanion hole proved the great importance of its hydroxyl group in the transition-state stabilization. The lost transition-state stabilization was partly replaced through substrate-assisted catalysis with substrates carrying a hydroxyl group. The poor selectivity of the wild-type lipase for ethyl 2-hydroxypropanoate (E=1.6) was greatly improved in the mutant (E=22), since only one enantiomer could perform substrate-assisted catalysis. The redesign of the size of the stereospecificity pocket was very successful. Mutation of the tryptophan at the bottom of this pocket removed steric interactions with secondary alcohols that have to position a substituent larger than an ethyl in this pocket. This mutation increased the activity 5 500 times towards 5-nonanol and 130 000 times towards (S)-1-phenylethanol. The acceptance of such large substituents (butyl and phenyl) in the redesigned stereospecificity pocket increases the utility of lipases in biocatalysis. The improved activity with (S)-1-phenylethanol strongly contributed to the 8 300 000 times change in enantioselectivity towards 1-phenylethanol; example of such a large change was not found in the literature. The S-selectivity of the mutant is unique for lipases. Its enantioselectivity increases strongly with temperature reaching a useful S-selectivity (E=44) at 69 °C. Thermodynamics analysis of the enantioselectivity showed that the mutation in the stereospecificity pocket mainly changed the entropic term, while the enthalpic term was only slightly affected. This pinpoints the importance of entropy in enzyme catalysis and entropy should not be neglected in rational redesign.

The thesis entitled ‘Chemistry of molybdenum xanthate (MoO2[Et2NCS2]2): Applications in organic synthesis’ is presented in 4 chapters. Molybdenum (IV and VI) oxo-complexes are the subject of significant interest due to their functional and structural similarities with several molybdo-enzymes.1 Literature survey suggests that, molybdenum (VI as well as IV) xanthate2 1 resembles the active sites of various molybdo-enzymes. Therefore, in the present thesis, we are presenting our attempts directed towards exploiting molybdenum xanthate 1 in developing various useful methodologies. Figure 1: Molybdenum xanthate Chapter 1 discloses the utility of molybdenum xanthate (1) in catalytic, aerobic oxidation of organic azides and alcohols as presented in part A and B. Part A: A mild molybdenum xanthate catalyzed, chemoselective oxidation of benzylic azides to the corresponding aldehydes3 under aerobic condition is described. This oxidation turned out to be a general method and a variety of benzylic azides were oxidized to the corresponding aldehydes. This oxidation protocol tolerates a variety of functional groups including alcohols, esters, ketones, halides and olefins. More importantly, the oxidation of azides stops at corresponding aldehyde stage without further oxidation to the corresponding carboxylic acids. A few examples are presented in scheme 1. Part B: As our attempts to oxidize alcohols with molybdenum xanthate 1 were unsuccessful (Chapter 1, Part A), we have attempted supporting the reagent 1 and investigated its utility in the oxidation of alcohols. As a consequence, polyaniline supported molybdenum xanthate (MoO2[Et2NCS2]2) is designed and used in an aerobic and mild chemoselective oxidation of alcohols4 to the corresponding aldehydes and ketones. The scheme to use polyaniline as the support for molybdenum xanthate was derived from the fact that polyaniline is known to increase the redox activity of various metal complexes by coordinating to the metal centre.5 The present oxidation strategy tolerates a variety of functional groups such as olefin, ketones, sulfides, tertiary amines, propargyl group etc. This oxidation strategy also works very well for the oxidation of secondary benzylic alcohols. Interestingly, the supported catalyst can be filtered after the reaction and reused for further oxidation without loss of its activity. Some representative examples are presented in Scheme 2. Chapter 2 describes the chemoselective and efficient reduction of azides to the corresponding amines. In this chapter, we have shown that a catalytic amount of molybdenum xanthate (1, MoO2[S2CNEt2]2) with PhSiH3 is an effective catalyst for the reduction of azides to the corresponding amines.6 This reduction of azides by 1, was inspired by the reductive silylation of aldehydes through the activation of silanes.7 This reduction tolerates a variety of reducible functional groups such as olefin, aldehydes, ketones, esters, amides and ethers, acetals etc. This strategy was also extended to various aliphatic azides to synthesize amine and their N-Boc derivatives in good yields. Scheme 3 illustrates few examples. Chapter 3 discloses convenient methods for the synthesis of substituted thiourea derivatives as presented in part A and B. Part A: A convenient method for the synthesis of tri-substituted thiourea derivatives by the reaction of primary amines with molybdenum dialkyl dithiocarbamates is presented in Part A.8 Primary amines on reaction with molybdenum xanthate produce corresponding thioureas in moderate to good yields. Similar reactions with propargylamine and 2-aminoethanol produce cyclic thiaoxazolidine and oxazolidine derivatives respectively. This methodology has been successfully adopted for the synthesis of amino acids derived chiral thioureas. Some examples are presented in Scheme 4. Scheme 4: Molybdenum xanthate mediated synthesis of thioureas Part B: An efficient method for the synthesis of symmetrical and unsymmetrical substituted thiourea9 derivatives by simple condensation of amine and carbon disulfide in aqueous medium is extensively studied. Present method describes the involvement of amino dithiol moiety as an intermediate. Though this method is not successful with secondary amines and aryl amines, it works smoothly with aliphatic primary amines to afford various di- and tri-substituted thiourea derivatives. The present method is also useful in synthesizing various substituted 2-mercapto imidazole heterocycles in moderate yields. A few examples are seen in Scheme 5. Scheme 5: Synthesis of thiourea derivatives in aqueous medium Chapter 4 describes a chemoselective deprotection10 of terminal acetonides (isopropylidines) by using aqueous TBHP (70%). A variety of acetonide derivatives on reaction with aq. TBHP in water:t-BuOH (1:1) as solvent mixtures furnish the corresponding acetonide deprotected diol products in good yields. This unprecedented deprotection strategy, tolerates a variety of acid sensitive functional groups such as silyl ether, trityl, olefin, propargyl, methoxymethyl ether, N-Boc, lactones, esters etc. A few examples are documented in Scheme 6. Scheme 6: Chemoselective deprotection of acetonides (For structural formula pl see the pdf file)

The development and application of unnatural amino alcohols,prepared via hetero-Diels-Alder reactions,in synthesis and catalysis is described.The studies are concerned with the [i]scope of the hetero-Diels-Alder reaction and preparation of important intermediates in the synthesis of antiviral agents,[ii ]application of amino alcohols in the ruthenium transfer hydrogenation of ketones,[iii ]use of similar precursors in the in situ generation of oxazaborolidines for reduction of ketones,and [iv] development and application of new chiral auxiliaries for dialkylzinc additions to activated imines, respectively. [i ]The use of chiral exo -2-azanorbornyl-3-carboxylates in the preparation of enantiopure cyclopentyl-amines is described.At the same time the scope of the hetero-Diels-Alder reaction,used in their preparation,is extended by manipulations of the dienophiles. [ii ]Application of 2-azanorbornyl-3-methanol as a very efficient ligand in the ruthenium-catalysed asymmetric transfer hydrogenation of aromatic ketones.This ligand (2 mol%)in combination with [RuCl2(p -cymene)]2 (0.25 mol%)gave rise to a very fast reaction (1.5 h)leading to the reduced products in excellent yields and enantioselectivities (up to 97%ee ). [iii ]Preparation of α-disubstituded 2-azanorbornyl-3-methanols,in situ generation of the corresponding oxazaborolidines,and use of the latter in reduction of aromatic ketones.Concentration, solvent,and temperature effects on the reaction outcome are described. [iv ]Development of two generations of chiral auxiliaries for the addition of dialkylzinc reagents to N - (diphenylphosphinoyl)imines.Studies using density functional computations allowed the rationalisation of the reaction mechanism and the development of a second generation of ligands that improved the previously reported results.Up to 98%ee could be obtained with these new ligands. Solvent effects on the outcome of the reaction and extension of the work to a larger variety of N - (diphenylphosphinoyl)imines are described.

Mechanistic studies on three different ruthenium-based catalysts have been performed. The catalysts have in common that they have been employed in hydrogen transfer reactions involving alcohols and ketones, amines and imines or both. Bäckvall’s catalyst, η5-(Ph5C5)Ru(CO)2Cl, finds its application as racemization catalyst in dynamic kinetic resolution, where racemic alcohols are converted to enantiopure acetates in high yields. The mechanism of the racemization has been investigated and both alkoxide and alkoxyacyl intermediates have been characterized by NMR spectroscopy and in situ FT-IR measurements. The presence of acyl intermediates supports a mechanism via CO assistance. Substantial support for coordination of the substrate during the racemization cycle is provided, including exchange studies with both external and internal potential ketone traps. We also detected an unexpected alkoxycarbonyl complex from 5-hydroxy-1-hexene, which has the double bond coordinated to ruthenium. Shvo’s catalyst, [Ru2(CO)4(μ-H)(C4Ph4COHOCC4Ph4)] is a powerful catalyst for transfer hydrogenation as well as for dynamic kinetic resolution. The mechanism of this catalyst is still under debate, even though a great number of studies have been published during the past decade. In the present work, the mechanism of the reaction with imines has been investigated. Exchange studies with both an external and an internal amine as potential traps have been performed and the results can be explained by a stepwise inner-sphere mechanism. However, if there is e.g. a solvent cage effect, the results can also be explained by an outer-sphere mechanism. We have found that there is no cage effect in the reduction of a ketone containing a potential internal amine trap. If the mechanism is outer-sphere, an explanation as to why the solvent cage effect is much stronger in the case of imines than ketones is needed. Noyori’s catalyst, [p-(Me2CH)C6H4Me]RuH(NH2CHPhCHPhNSO2C6H4-p-CH3), has successfully been used to produce chiral alcohols and amines via transfer hydrogenation. The present study shows that the mechanism for the reduction of imines is different from that of ketones and aldehydes. Acidic activation of the imine was found necessary and an ionic mechanism was proposed.