<p>The proteasome is a multi-subunit protease complex responsible for most of the non-lysosomal protein turnover in eukaryotic cells. This degradation process can be conducted dependent or independent of ubiquitination as different isoforms with different substrate preferences coexist in the cell. Proteasomal activity declines during aging due to a decreased expression of proteasome subunits, complex disassembly, and oxidative stress. This malfunction leads to protein accumulation, subsequent aggregation, and ultimately diseased states. Considering the shared feature of aggregation and accumulation of intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) in age-related diseases, and the substrate preference of the 20S isoform for misfolded proteins, enhancing the proteolytic activity of the 20S proteasome has arisen as an attractive strategy to minimize the burden associated with this increased protein load. Recently, we identified the FDA-approved drug miconazole (MO) as a stimulator of the 20S isoform and validated its activity profile in biochemical and cell-based assays. Given its FDA-approved drug status, we considered that to successfully repurpose it, information regarding its binding location within the 20S and network of binding partners, as well as its value in protein homeostasis in age-related diseases are necessary. Herein, we (1) conduct SAR studies to determine MO’s key features responsible for proteasomal activation and obtain molecules with enhanced ability to activate the 20S proteasome; next, using the developed SAR model, we (2) design a diazirine-based photoreactive probe that allows for the identification of MO’s binding partners and location within the 20S proteasome. Lastly, we (3) explore the use of MO to restore the activity of impaired proteasomes by Parkinson’s disease-associated toxic oligomers. This work expands upon previous research avenues by using newer approaches to study this enzymatic complex, and describes methods that can be further used to better establish the role of the 20S proteasome in age-related diseases.</p>

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second-most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer’s disease. With 500,000 individuals currently living with Parkinson’s and nearly 60,000 new cases diagnosed each year, this disease causes significant financial burden on the healthcare system - amassing to annual expenditures totaling 200 billion dollars; predicted to increase through 2050. The disease phenotype is characterized by a combination of a resting tremor, bradykinesia, muscular rigidity, and depression due to dopaminergic neuronal death in the midbrain. The cause of the neurotoxicity has been largely discussed, with strong evidence suggesting that the protein, alpha-Synuclein, is a key factor. Under native conditions, alpha-Synuclein can be found localized at synaptic terminals where it is hypothesized to be involved in vesicle trafficking and recycling. However, its biochemical profile reveals a hydrophobic region that, once subjected to insult, initiates an aggregation cascade. Oligomeric species—products of the aggregation cascade—demonstrate marked neurotoxicity in dopaminergic neurons and illustrate migratory potential to neighboring healthy neurons, thereby contributing to progressive neurodegeneration. The current golden standard for PD diagnostics is a highly qualitative system involving a process-by-elimination with accuracy that is contingent upon physician experience. This, and a lack of standardized clinical testing procedures, lends to a 25% misdiagnosis rate. Even under circumstances of an accurate PD diagnosis, the only treatment options are pharmacologics that have a wide range of adverse side effects and ultimately contribute to systemic metabolic dysfunction. Thus, the research presented in this thesis seeks to overcome these current challenges by providing (1) a quantitative diagnostic platform and (2) a biomolecular therapeutic, towards oligomeric alpha-Synuclein. Aim 1: serves as a proof-of-concept for the use of catalytic nucleic acid moieties, deoxyribozymes and aptamers, to quantify alpha-Synuclein in a novel manner and explore the ability to detect oligomeric cytotoxic species. The cost-effective nature of these sensors allows for continued optimization. Aim 2: serves to establish a potential therapy that can abrogate alpha-synuclein oligomerization and toxicity through use of a modified Protein Disulfide Isomerase (PDI) peptide when introduced to live cells treated to simulate pre-parkinsonian pathology.

No description available.

No description available.

Parkinson ist eine neurodegenerative Erkrankung mit motorischen sowie nicht-motorischen Einschränkungen für die betroffenen Personen. Es wird von einer multifaktoriellen Ätiologie ausgegangen, bei der es zur Entstehung von Lewy-Körperchen kommt. Ein Hauptbestandteil dieser Körperchen ist das in Aggregaten vorliegende Protein Alpha-Synuclein (α-syn). Derartige neurodegenerative Erkrankungen wie Parkinson, Demenz mit Lewy-Körperchen sowie Multisystematrophie sind als Synucleinopathien zusammengefasst. Der durch die α-syn-Pathologie mögliche Einfluss auf die adulte Neurogenese wurde als mögliche Ursache oder zumindest als Beitrag zu den Gedächtnisstörungen genannt, die sowohl bei Patienten als auch in Tiermodellen der Parkinson-Krankheit und der Demenz mit Lewy-Körperchen (DLB) beobachtet werden. Im adulten Gehirn findet die Neurogenese einerseits in der subgranulären Zone (SGZ) des hippocampalen Gyrus dendatus (GD) und andererseits in der suventrikulären Zone des lateralen Ventrikels statt. Da Parkinson bei Tieren nicht hinreichend charakterisiert ist, ist die Verwendung eines geeigneten transgenen Mausmodells unerlässlich. Mäuse, die das Wildtyp-α-Syn unter dem Thy1-Promotor überexprimieren (Thy1-α-syn, Linie 61), zeigen frühe kognitive Defizite zusammen mit mehreren anderen charakteristischen motorischen und nicht-motorischen Symptomen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die neuralen Vorläuferzellen (NVZ), Neurone und Astrogliazellen im adulten Hippocampus in der Wildtyp-Maus und dem Mausmodell Thy1-α-syn, Linie 61 zu charakterisieren, quantifizieren und zwischen dem Wildtyp und dem Mausmodell zu vergleichen. In dieser Studie wurde ein signifikanter Anstieg in der Anzahl der frühen Vorläuferzellen, d. h. der Pax6+/PCNA+ Zellen, im GD der Thy1-α-syn-Mäuse, sowohl im Alter von 6 und 16 Monaten, ermittelt. Die Anzahl der NVZ, d. h. der PCNA+ Zellen, ist in den 16, jedoch nicht in den 6, Monate alten Tieren im Vergleich zum WT signifikant erhöht. Während die Anzahl der späten Vorläuferzellen und Neurone, d. h. der Tbr2+/PCNA+ und NeuN+ Zellen, im GD der Thy1-α-syn-Mäuse im Vergleich zu den Kontrolltieren in beiden Altersgruppen nicht signifikant verändert war. Die stärkste Expression von phosphoryliertem α-syn konnte in den Regionen CA1 und CA3 gezeigt werden. Die Messung der GFAP-Pixelintensität ergab einen signifikanten Anstieg in den Hippocampusregionen CA1, SGZ, in der Molekularschicht und der polymorphzelligen Schicht in Thy1-α-syn-Mäusen im Vergleich zu den Kontrolltieren sowohl in den 6 und 16 Monate alten Tieren. Beim Vergleich der Verhältnisse von CA1 zur SGZ, Molekularschicht und polymorphzelligen Schicht zeigte sich jedoch kein Unterschied GFAP-Pixelintensität zwischen den Thy1-α-syn-Mäusen und den Kontrolltieren in beiden Altersgruppen, was auf eine Allgemeine, nicht ortsgebundene, Astrogliose in den Thy1-α-syn-Mäusen hinweist. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen eine Steigerung in der Anzahl der frühen neuralen Vorläuferzellen im adulten Hypocampus in einem Thy1-α-syn-überexprimierenden Mausmodell. Sie bilden die Grundlage für weitere Untersuchungen zur Pathogenese der PD im Tiermodell sowie zur Entdeckung wirksamer therapeutischer Maßnahmen gegen die kognitive Dysfunktion bei Morbus Parkinson und DLB.:1. Einleitung 2. Literaturübersicht 2.1 Alpha-Synuclein 2.1.1 Eigenschafften des Proteins 2.1.2 Synucleinopathien 2.2 Parkinson 2.2.1 Definition 2.2.2 Epidemiologie 2.2.3 Einteilung 2.2.4 Symptome 2.2.5 Pathogenese 2.2.6 Diagnostik 2.2.7 Therapie 2.3 Hippocampus 2.4 Neurogenese 2.4.1 Neurogenese im adulten Hippocampus 2.4.2 Neurogenese im Zusammenhang mit Synucleinopathien 2.5 Immunhistochemische Marker 2.5.1 PCNA und Ki67 2.5.2 Pax6 2.5.3 Nestin 2.5.4 Tbr2 2.5.5 NeuN und Tbr1 2.5.6 GFAP 2.6 Mausmodell 3. Publikation 3.1 Eigenanteil der Publikation 3.2 Publikation mit dem Titel: “Alpha-Synuclein Pathology Coincides With Increased Number of Early Stage Neural Progenitors in the Adult Hippocampus” 4. Diskussion 5. Zusammenfassung 6. Summary 7. Literaturverzeichnis 8. Danksagung

A recent model of Parkinson’s disease (PD) suggests that the neuropathological, behavioural and cognitive symptoms progress in stages. There is substantial evidence for a prodromal stage of PD, during which time pre-motor symptoms develop. Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behaviour disorder (RBD) is a risk factor for developing PD and may be part of the pre-motor stage. In both disorders, neuropathological α-synuclein aggregates are thought to be a direct cause of the resulting symptoms. One model has shown that in rats, proteasome inhibition produced by systemic exposure to environmental toxins results in α-synuclein pathology and motor behaviour dysfunction that mimics the progression of PD in humans. The present study examined the hypothesis that the systemic proteasome inhibition model would produce pre-Parkinsonian RBD-like pathology in rats. It was expected that sleep disturbances would be seen prior to behavioural disturbances in rats treated systemically with PSI (a proteasome inhibitor). Following baseline sleep recording and training on the inclined beam-traverse task, rats were injected with PSI (a proteasome inhibitor) or ethanol (control), 6 times over 2 wk. Sleep recording over 8 wk and behavioural testing over 16 wk provided no evidence of sleep disturbances or motor dysfunction. Post-mortem immunohistochemical analyses of brain tissue provided no evidence of PSI-associated α-synuclein aggregates in the locus coeruleus, subcoeruleus (dorsal part), or substantia nigra (areas involved in RBD and/or PD). These results did not provide support for RBD as a prodromal phase of PD within the systemic proteasome inhibitor-based model and add to a growing body of research reporting inconsistent findings using this model. We suggest that systemic PSI exposure in rats does not produce a viable model of RBD or PD. Whether RBD is an early symptom in the progression of PD remains to be established. / Thesis (Master, Neuroscience Studies) -- Queen's University, 2010-04-28 12:04:50.613

Abstract: Neurodegenerative diseases are associated with progressive loss of structure or function of neurons which results in cell death. Recent evidence indicate that all neurodegenerative disorders, sporadic or transmissible, may have a common pathological mechanism at the molecular level. This common feature consists of protein aggregation and accumulation of harmful aggregates in neuronal cells resulting in cellular apoptosis and neurotoxicity. Neurodegenerative diseases can affect abstract thinking, skilled movements, emotional feelings, cognition, memory and other abilities. This diverse group of diseases includes Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), prion diseases or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In my project I worked on the molecular mechanism of protein aggregation, propagation and neurotoxicity in Parkinson's disease and prion disease. Prion disease and PD are associated with misfolding and aggregation of PrPc and a-Synuclein (a-Syn), respectively. Despite being two important neurodegenerative disorders, molecular mechanisms of a-Syn or PrPC aggregation and amyloidogenesis are still unclear in PD and prion disease. Furthermore, the toxic protein species in PD have not been characterized yet. In this study we characterize the mechanism of a-Syn and PrPc misfolding in a physiological-like cell free condition in the absence of a-Syn aggregates, PrPc ggregated isoform (Pre's), denaturants or acidic environment. A number of studies indicate that dimerization of PrPc or a-Syn may be a key step in the aggregation process. To test this hypothesis we verified if enforced dimerization of PrPc or a-Syn may induce a conformational change reminiscent of the conversion of PrPc or a-Syn to PrPR' or a-Syn aggregates, respectively. We used a well-described inducible dimerization strategy where a dimerizing domain called FK506-binding protein (Fv) was fused to PrPc or a-Syn in order to produce chimeric proteins Fv-PrP and a-SynF'''. A divalent ligand AP20187 was used to induce protein dimerization. Addition of AP20187 to recombinant Fv-PrP in physiological-like conditions resulted in a rapid conformational change characterized by an increase in beta-sheet (13-Sheet) structure and simultaneous aggregation of the proteins. However, non-dimerized PrP formed 13-Sheet conformation in very slower rates. In the presence of AP20187, we also report a rapid random coil into 13-sheet conformational transformation of a-SynF" within 24 h, whereas wild type a-Syn showed 24 h delay to achieve P-sheet structure after 48 h. Electron microscopy experiments demonstrated that dimerization induced amyloid fibril formation after 48 h for both Fv-PrP and a-Syr?", whereas in the absence of dimerizing ligand AP20187, PrP or a-Syn converted into amyloid fibrils after 3 days or even later. Dimerization-induced Fv-PrP aggregates were partially resistant to PK digestion which is a characteristics of the naturally occurring PrPR'. The rates of amyloidogenesis in the presence of dimerization was also characterized by Thioflavin T (ThT) fluorescence probing. Whereas the stable structure of Fv-PrP showed no ThT binding for over 60 h of incubation at 37°C, the addition of AP20187 to Fv-PrP resulted in a time-dependent increase in ThT binding. As for a-SynR, dimerization accelerated the rate of ThT binding and amyloid formation comparing to the slower amyloidogenesis rate of wild type a-Syn in the absence of dimerizer AP20187. The impact of dimerization on a-Syn aggregation was further determined by Fluorescence ANS probing, indicating a higher affinity of dimerization-induced a-SynF" aggregates for binding to ANS comparing to wild type a-Syn aggregates. These results indicate that dimerization increases the aggregation and amyloidogenesis processes for Fv-PrP and a-SynF". Both Fv-PrP and a-SynF" amyloids were successfully propagated in vitro by protein misfolding amplification (PMCA) cycle. These results ar in agreement with the theory that all protein aggregates in neurodegenerative diseases propagate with the same molecular mechanism. Neurotoxicity of recombinant Fv-PrP and a-SynF" aggregates was determined in cellulo and in vivo, respectively. Aggregates of Fv-PrP were toxic to cultured cells whilst soluble Fv-PrP and amyloid fibres were harmless to the cells. When injected to the mice brain, both a-Syni" and a-Syn pre-fibrillar aggregates internalized cells and induced neurotoxicity in the hippocampus of wild-type mice. These recombinant toxic aggregates further converted into non-toxic amyloids which were successfully amplified by PMCA method, providing the first evidence for the in vitro propagation of synthetic a-Syn aggregates. These results suggest an important role for protein dimerization in aggregation and amyloidogenesis, and therefore, in the pathology of PD and prion disease. The similarities between aggregation, amyloidogenesis and toxicity of PrPC and ct-Syn provide further evidence on the existance of a prion-like mechanism in all neurodegenerative disorders. // Résumé: Les maladies neurodégénératives sont associées à la perte progressive des propriétés structurales ou fonctionnelles des neurones, ce qui engendre la mort des cellules. De récentes études indiquent que tous les désordres neurodégénératifs, sporadiques ou transmissibles, peuvent avoir un mécanisme pathologique commun au niveau moléculaire. Ce dispositif commun se compose de l'agrégation de protéines, de la propagation des agrégats, et de l'accumulation d’agrégats toxiques dans les cellules neuronales, menant à l'apoptose et à la neurotoxicité cellulaire. Les maladies neurodégénératives peuvent affecter la pensée abstraite, les mouvements habiles, les sentiments émotifs, la connaissance, la Mémoire et d'autres capacités cognitives. Ce groupe divers de maladies inclut la maladie d'Alzheimer (AD), de Parkinson (PD), de Huntington (HD), les maladies à prions ou encéphalopathies spongiformes transmissibles (TSEs) et la sclérose latérale amyotrophique (ALS). [symboles non conformes]

La maladie de Parkinson (PD) et la démence à corps de Lewy (DLB) sont les deuxième et troisième maladies neurodégénératives les plus communes et font partie d’une classe de maladies appelées synucléinopathies. Les synucléinopathies sont associées à une pathologie liée à l’α-synucléine (α-syn) laquelle se caractérise par une accumulation de cette protéine dans les neurones, formant ainsi les corps de Lewy. L’α-syn pathologique se retrouve aussi sous forme d’oligomères et de fibrilles, qui sont toxiques pour les neurones et leurs synapses. L’une des premières anomalies observables chez les patients atteints de synucléinopathies est la dysfonction synaptique, souvent combinée à une perte de synapses. Il a été rapporté que les oligomères d’α-syn retrouvés au niveau des synapses précèdent la formation de corps de Lewy dans les neurones et leur transmission semble être associée à la progression des symptômes. Pourtant, les mécanismes moléculaires sous-jacents la dysfonction synaptique causée par l’α-syn restent inconnus. D’autre part, le fonctionnement normal des synapses est fortement régulé par une famille de protéines appelées organisateurs synaptiques. Les organisateurs synaptiques, incluant la protéine neurexine, sont des molécules d’adhésion cellulaire qui régulent la synaptogenèse, la plasticité, la libération des neurotransmetteurs et les fonctions cognitives. De plus, nous avons préliminairement montré que l’α-syn interagit avec l’isoforme β des neurexines (NRXs) (β-NRXs). Mon projet avait donc pour but de caractériser l’interaction α-syn/β-NRX et d’évaluer comment celle-ci contribue à la pathologie liée à l’α-syn. Nous avons émis l’hypothèse que cette interaction affecte la fonction synaptogénique liée aux NRXs et son trafic. Dans un premier temps, pour tester notre hypothèse, l’interaction α-syn/β-NRX a été évaluée grâce à des analyses de liaison à la surface cellulaire. Il a été constaté que les oligomères d’α-syn se lient fortement à NRX1,2β de manière dépendante du domaine riche en histidine (HRD), caractéristique de l’isoforme β, et cela sans perturber sa liaison à ses ligands endogènes postsynaptiques, neuroligine 1 (NLG1) et « leucine rich repeat transmembrane neuronal 2 » (LRRTM2). De plus, à travers des essais d’internalisation, nous avons observé que les oligomères d’α-syn altèrent le trafic de NRX1β en augmentant son internalisation de façon dépendante au HRD et altèrent également la différenciation NRX-dépendante de la synapse en synapse inhibitrice. Par conséquent, nous suggérons que cette internalisation accrue pourrait affecter la fonction synaptogénique associée aux NRXs. Ce travail contribue à une meilleure compréhension sur la façon dont l’α-syn provoque un dysfonctionnement synaptique, fournissant de nouvelles perspectives moléculaires et pharmacologiques sur les synucléinopathies. / Parkinson’s disease (PD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) are the second and the third most common neurodegenerative disorders and are part of a class of diseases called synucleinopathies. Synucleinopathies are associated with an α-synuclein (α-syn) pathology which shows an accumulation of α-syn in neurons, forming Lewy bodies. This pathological α-syn can form oligomers and fibrils, which are toxic for neurons and their synapses. One of the first changes to occur in patients’ brain with synucleinopathies is synaptic dysfunction often combined with synapse loss. Synaptic α-syn oligomers were revealed to precede the formation of Lewy bodies, and their transmission to other neurons to correlate with the progression of the symptoms. Yet, the molecular mechanisms underlying how α-syn leads to synaptic dysfunction are unknown. Synaptic function is highly regulated by a protein family called synaptic organizers. Synaptic organizers are cell adhesion molecules that regulate synaptogenesis, plasticity, neurotransmitter release, synaptic plasticity and cognitive functions. Of this family, we have found that α-syn interacts with the β-isoforms of the neurexins (NRXs) family members (β-NRXs). My project aimed to characterize α-syn/β-NRX interaction and to evaluate how this interaction contributes to α-syn pathology. We hypothesized that this interaction affects NRX trafficking and its synaptic function. Firstly, to test our hypothesis, the α-syn/β-NRX interaction was characterized by performing cell surface binding assays. I found that α-syn oligomers strongly bind to NRX1,2β in a histidine rich domain (HRD)-dependent manner, without disrupting NRX binding to its postsynaptic binding partners, neuroligin 1 (NLG1) and leucine rich repeat transmembrane neuronal 2 (LRRTM2). Moreover, using internalization assays, we discovered that α-syn oligomers impair NRX trafficking by increasing NRX1β internalization in an HRD-dependent manner and impair NRX-dependent inhibitory presynaptic differentiation. Thereby, we suggest that this increased internalization affects the inhibitory synaptogenic function of NRX-based synaptic organizing complexes. This work contributes to a better understanding of how α-syn causes synaptic dysfunction, providing promising new molecular mechanisms and pharmacological insights into synucleinopathies.

<p dir="ltr">My research projects focuses on the dual targeting of small molecules to abrogate aberrant α-syn, tau (2N4R), and p-tau (1N4R) aggregation and to reduce the spread of AD and related dementias. Not very many drug discovery programs focus on the specific isoforms of the tau protein. We established two series of compounds: aminoindole compounds connected by a carboxamide and triazine compounds connected by a triazine linker. Using biophysical methods we evaluated the effectiveness of both series of compounds in decreasing the amount of misfolded α-syn and tau protein in order to explore their anti-aggregation potential.</p><p><br></p>

Alterações morfológicas e funcionais ocorrem durante o envelhecimento, período da vida com maior incidência de doenças neurodegenerativas. No presente trabalho acompanhou-se a evolução dos grânulos de lipofucsina durante o envelhecimento para investigar alterações sinápticas, assim como proteínas associadas com doenças neurodegenerativas (alfa-sinucleína) e com o sistema ubiquitina-proteossoma em indivíduos de diferentes idades. No córtex temporal humano e de ratos determinou-se, nos diferentes grupos etários, seguindo a área, o número e as características dos grânulos de lipofucsina, o número de sinapses excitatórias, inibitórias e elétricas, os locais de contatos pós-sinápticos, o número de vesículas sinápticas por terminal e a expressão das proteínas alfa-sinucleína e ubiquitina. Amostras de córtex temporal humano de indivíduos com diferentes idades (20 - 28, 37 - 41 e 50 - 55 anos) foram coletadas de pacientes com epilepsia submetidos à lobectomia do lobo temporal. Amostras de ratos de 2, 6, 10 e 12 meses também foram coletadas. Foram utilizadas técnicas de microscopia de luz, eletrônica, confocal e western blots. Os dados obtidos de grânulos de lipofucsina são consistentes com outros estudos que observaram aumento dessa estrutura em mamíferos de maior idade. No entanto, os grânulos parecem crescer em volume, mas não em número, com aumento considerável da fração elétron lúcida (lipídica). Não houve diferença na expressão das proteínas alfa-sinucleína e ubiquitina entre os grupos das idades estudadas. A densidade sináptica foi similar entre os grupos experimentais, assim como o local de contato pós-sináptico. O aumento de vesículas elétron densas em sinapses inibitórias deve estar associado à demanda de neurotransmissores catecolaminérgicos. Estes resultados não expressam totalmente o processo de envelhecimento, pois as faixas etárias de humanos e ratos correspondem a uma idade ainda jovem. A coleta de material humano mais idoso foi impossibilitada pela faixa etária dos doentes submetidos à lobectomia. Os ratos do biotério da FMRP, não sobrevivem mais do que 12 meses em no nosso ambiente, incluindo manutenção dos animais isolados em racks. / Morphological and functional changes occur during the aging, period of life with increased incidence of neurodegenerative diseases. Following the evolution of the lipofuscin granules along three periods of life in humans and rats, the present work investigated synaptic changes, as well as proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases (alpha-synuclein) and the ubiquitin-proteossoma system in individuals of different ages. The objectives of the study were to analyze the temporal cortex of humans and rats: the number of excitatory, inhibitory, and electric synapses, the site of postsynaptic contacts, the number of synaptic vesicles per terminal, and the expression of the proteins alpha-synuclein and ubiquitin following the size and features of the lipofuscin granules. Samples of temporal cortex of human subjects with different ages (20-28, 37-41 and 50-55 years) were collected from patients with epilepsy who underwent temporal lobectomy. Samples from rats of 2, 6, 10 and 12 months were also collected. Light, confocal, and electron microscopy, and western blots techniques were used as procedures. The data obtained on lipofuscin granules were coincident with other studies that observed a higher area occupied by this structure in older mammals. However, the granules seem to grow in volume, but not in number, with considerable increase of the electron lucid fraction (lipidic). There was no difference in the alpha-synuclein and ubiquitin expressions between the experimental groups. The synaptic densities were similar between the groups, as well as the postsynaptic contacts. Increase of the electron dense vesicles in inhibitory synapses, appeared to be associated with the demand of catecholamines. These results do not express totally the aging process, because the range of age used in humans, and rats belong to a young age. The human samples from older ages was difficult because, in general, of the age of the patients submitted to lobotomy. The rats of the FMRP bioterium do not survived more that 12 months in our environment, even in controlled conditions.