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Moniliophthora perniciosa é um fungo basidiomiceto causador da doença vassoura de bruxa do cacaueiro. Um conjunto de técnicas para controle da doença vem sendo testado e aplicado, incluindo o uso de fungicidas a base de inibidores da cadeia respiratória principal, específicos para fungos. No entanto, M. perniciosa tem se mostrado resistente a estas drogas e uma possível explicação para tal resistência é a atividade de uma oxidase alternativa (AOXp), cuja expressão e atividade já vêm sendo caracterizadas. A análise funcional deste gene de M. perniciosa não foi realizada, pois uma técnica efetiva para produção de mutantes do fungo ainda não foi estabelecida. Assim, este projeto visou testar a hipótese de que a expressão do gene AOX de M. perniciosa (Mp-AOX) previne o estresse oxidativo devido à diminuição na produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS) pela cadeia respiratória. Para isso realizamos a caracterização do gene Mp-AOX por clonagem e expressão heteróloga em Saccharomyces cerevisiae. O vetor de expressão em levedura pYES2/CT com o gene Mp-AOX foi montado e a linhagem de levedura W303-1b transformada. Foram realizadas análises de medição de formação de massa celular, geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS) mitocondrial, testes de viabilidade na presença de inibidores da cadeia respiratória principal Antimicina A e azoxistrobina e do inibidor específico de AOXp - ácido salicil hidroxâmico (SHAM). Nossos resultados indicam que quando o gene Mp-AOX é expresso em S. cerevisiae há diminuição da geração de biomassa celular, menor proliferação celular e decaimento na produção de ROS, sugerindo que nossa hipótese inicial de que Mp-AOXp causa alívio no estresse oxidativo estar correta. A levedura recombinante expressando o gene Mp-AOX mostrou-se viável para utilização como modelo para estudos de novos análogos químicos para o combate da vassoura de bruxa, auxiliando a agricultura e promovendo novos entendimentos para o combate desse fungo. / Moniliophthora pernicious is a basidiomycete fungus that causes witches\' broom of cacao disease. A number of techniques for disease control has been applied and tested, including the use of the fungicides that inhibits the main respiratory chain, specific to fungi. However, M. pernicious has proven to be resistant to these drugs and one possible explanation to this resistance would be the activity of an alternative oxidase activity (AOXp), whose expression and activity have already been characterized. Functional analysis of this gene in M. pernicious was not performed because an effective technique for producing mutants of the fungus has not yet been established. This project aimed to test the hypothesis that the expression of Mp-AOX gene prevents oxidative stress due to decreased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the respiratory chain. To perform this characterization, Mp- AOX gene was cloned and heterologous expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The yeast expression vector pYES2/CT with Mp-AOX gene was constructed and the yeast strain W303 - 1b transformed. Analyses measuring cell mass formation, generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), viability tests challenging the cells against inhibitors of the main respiratory chain, Antimycin A and azoxystrobin, and against the specific inhibitor of the AOXp - salicylaldehyde hydroxamic acid (SHAM) were performed. Our results indicate that the Mp-AOX gene expression in S. cerevisiae causes decreased generation of cellular biomass, less cell proliferation and the decay in the production of ROS, suggesting that our initial hypothesis that Mp-AOXp reliefs the oxidative stress is correct. The recombinant yeast expressing Mp- AOX gene was feasible for use as a model for studies of new chemical to fight witches\' broom, helping with agriculture and promoting new understandings to combat this fungus.

Moniliophthora perniciosa é um fungo basidiomiceto causador da doença vassoura de bruxa do cacaueiro. Um conjunto de técnicas para controle da doença vem sendo testado e aplicado, incluindo o uso de fungicidas a base de inibidores da cadeia respiratória principal, específicos para fungos. No entanto, M. perniciosa tem se mostrado resistente a estas drogas e uma possível explicação para tal resistência é a atividade de uma oxidase alternativa (AOXp), cuja expressão e atividade já vêm sendo caracterizadas. A análise funcional deste gene de M. perniciosa não foi realizada, pois uma técnica efetiva para produção de mutantes do fungo ainda não foi estabelecida. Assim, este projeto visou testar a hipótese de que a expressão do gene AOX de M. perniciosa (Mp-AOX) previne o estresse oxidativo devido à diminuição na produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS) pela cadeia respiratória. Para isso realizamos a caracterização do gene Mp-AOX por clonagem e expressão heteróloga em Saccharomyces cerevisiae. O vetor de expressão em levedura pYES2/CT com o gene Mp-AOX foi montado e a linhagem de levedura W303-1b transformada. Foram realizadas análises de medição de formação de massa celular, geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS) mitocondrial, testes de viabilidade na presença de inibidores da cadeia respiratória principal Antimicina A e azoxistrobina e do inibidor específico de AOXp - ácido salicil hidroxâmico (SHAM). Nossos resultados indicam que quando o gene Mp-AOX é expresso em S. cerevisiae há diminuição da geração de biomassa celular, menor proliferação celular e decaimento na produção de ROS, sugerindo que nossa hipótese inicial de que Mp-AOXp causa alívio no estresse oxidativo estar correta. A levedura recombinante expressando o gene Mp-AOX mostrou-se viável para utilização como modelo para estudos de novos análogos químicos para o combate da vassoura de bruxa, auxiliando a agricultura e promovendo novos entendimentos para o combate desse fungo. / Moniliophthora pernicious is a basidiomycete fungus that causes witches\' broom of cacao disease. A number of techniques for disease control has been applied and tested, including the use of the fungicides that inhibits the main respiratory chain, specific to fungi. However, M. pernicious has proven to be resistant to these drugs and one possible explanation to this resistance would be the activity of an alternative oxidase activity (AOXp), whose expression and activity have already been characterized. Functional analysis of this gene in M. pernicious was not performed because an effective technique for producing mutants of the fungus has not yet been established. This project aimed to test the hypothesis that the expression of Mp-AOX gene prevents oxidative stress due to decreased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the respiratory chain. To perform this characterization, Mp- AOX gene was cloned and heterologous expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The yeast expression vector pYES2/CT with Mp-AOX gene was constructed and the yeast strain W303 - 1b transformed. Analyses measuring cell mass formation, generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), viability tests challenging the cells against inhibitors of the main respiratory chain, Antimycin A and azoxystrobin, and against the specific inhibitor of the AOXp - salicylaldehyde hydroxamic acid (SHAM) were performed. Our results indicate that the Mp-AOX gene expression in S. cerevisiae causes decreased generation of cellular biomass, less cell proliferation and the decay in the production of ROS, suggesting that our initial hypothesis that Mp-AOXp reliefs the oxidative stress is correct. The recombinant yeast expressing Mp- AOX gene was feasible for use as a model for studies of new chemical to fight witches\' broom, helping with agriculture and promoting new understandings to combat this fungus.

[Truncated abstract] Mitochondria play an essential role in diverse metabolic pathways in plants. Their primary roles are the oxidation of organic acids via the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the synthesis of ATP coupled to the transfer of electrons from reduced NAD+ to oxygen via the electron transport chain. Plant mitochondria also contain nonphosphorylating bypasses of the respiratory chain, catalysed by the alternative oxidase (AOX), type II NAD(P)H dehydrogenases (NDHs) and uncoupling proteins (UCPs). Each of these components bypasses energy conservation by either circumventing the formation or utilization of the electrochemical proton gradient, and each is encoded by a small gene family in Arabidopsis. It is proposed that the alterative pathways are likely to be involved in balancing cellular redox and energy status and in minimizing the production of ROS generated by over-reduction of basal respiratory chain components. Furthermore the alternative respiratory pathways are thought to play a role in plant responses to stress. In this study a transcriptomic approach was taken to investigate the role of the alternative respiratory pathways in Arabidopsis, with a focus on elucidating the role and regulation of the AOX gene family. Analysis of the expression of the five AOX genes in Arabidopsis over development and in a range of tissues revealed a unique spatiotemporal expression pattern for each gene. Expression profiling using quantitative RT-PCR, MPSS and microarrays detected an abundance of the AOX1a transcript throughout the plant and over development. The expression patterns of other AOX genes provide insight into their putative roles, AOX1b was expressed predominantly in the flower, AOX1d was particularly abundant in senescing leaves and AOX2 expression was only observed in the seed.

This thesis aimed to identify the trypanocidal mode of action of non-natural chamuvarinin analogs, and to assess the previously uncharacterized secondary alternative oxidase (AOX2) as a possible drug target of the trypanosomatids. The drugs used to treat infections with Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp. are highly toxic and are increasingly becoming less effective as the parasites develop resistance, therefore new drugs against the diseases are desperately needed. Non-natural analogs of chamuvarinin were tested for trypanocidal activity to determine the structure activity relationships of the compounds against insect-form T. cruzi and Leishmania spp. This identified several potent and selective analogs, which retained good activity against the medically relevant intracellular forms of the parasites. Photoaffinity labeling was utilized to identify the mode of action and protein target(s) of the chamuvarinin analogs. The analogs were shown to deplete ATP levels and to induce mitochondrial dysmorphia and mitochondrial oxidative stress. Photoaffinity labeling confirmed the mitochondrial localization of the protein target(s) of these compounds, however the exact protein target(s) were unable to be identified by protein pull-down and mass spectrometry. The previously uncharacterized secondary alternative oxidases (AOX2) are conserved throughout the human-infective trypanosomatids and are absent from mammalian cells, thus making an attractive drug target if the protein is essential. The AOX2 of T. brucei, T. cruzi and L. major were expressed in Escherichia coli to characterize the enzymatic activity of the proteins. T. brucei AOX2 was successfully purified and shown to be an ubiquinol oxidase, which contains bound iron (III). The role of AOX2 within the trypanosomatids was determined by biochemical phenotyping and genetic manipulation of T. brucei, T. cruzi and L. major, which indicated that AOX2 is an essential mitochondrial oxidase in the three trypanosomatids, with a putative role in energy production, and therefore is an attractive multi-trypanosomatid drug target.

Neben dem förderlichen Effekt der Energiegewinnung stellt die Nutzung des Sonnenlichts auch Risiken für Pflanzen dar, insbesondere bei hohen Lichtintensitäten.Um die Balance aus Nutzen und Schaden der Lichtenergie gewährleisten zu können und sich schnell auf sich ändernde Lichtbedingungen einstellen zu können, verfügen Pflanzen über eine Vielzahl von Schutzmechanismen. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, mit Hilfe transgener Pflanzen die Rollen der chloroplastidären NADP-abhängigen Malatdehydrogenase (NADP-MDH) und der mitochondrialen Alternativen Oxidase (AOX) im Stoffwechsel von Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. näher zu charakterisieren. Die Analyse von nadp-mdh-knockout (ko)-Mutanten hat dabei auf erstaunliche Art und Weise verdeutlicht, wie flexibel der Metabolismus der Pflanze ist, um die Redoxhomöostase bei hohen Lichtintensitäten aufrecht zu erhalten und oxidative Schäden zu vermeiden. Überraschenderweise wurden bei diesen Mutanten selbst beim Wachstum unter hohen Lichtintensitäten keine Unterschiede zu entsprechenden Wildtyp (WT)-Pflanzen sichtbar. Jedoch konnten im Rahmen dieser Arbeit drei kompensatorische Stoffwechselwege aufgedeckt werden, welche die nadpmdh-ko-Pflanzen unter Starklichtbedingungen vor Photoinhibition schützen. So können die Mutanten durch eine erhöhte Aktivität des NTRC-Systems, höhere Photorespirationsraten und die Akkumulation von Prolin im Starklicht für den Erhalt der Redoxhomöostase sorgen und den Verlust der NADP-MDH ausgleichen. Zusätzlich wurden Untersuchungen zur Regulation der NADP-MDH-Expression durchgeführt. Die dazu durchgeführten Analysen der Promotorregion des NADP-MDH-Gens (At5g58330) bestätigten die Hypothese, dass regulatorische Elemente, die das komplexe Expressionsmuster der NADP-MDH in A. thaliana kontrollieren, im Laufe der Evolution in die kodierende Region des Gens verlagert wurden. In einem weiteren Ansatz wurden im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit aox1a-ko-Mutanten untersucht. Eine Inhibition des Cytochrom-Wegs unter Verwendung von Antimycin A (AA), welches in WT-Pflanzen die Expression von AOX1A induziert, führte zu erheblichen Differenzen zwischen aox1a-ko-Mutanten und WT-Pflanzen. Zusammenfassend geben die Befunde eindeutige Hinweise darauf, dass die AOX1A-Isoform in A. thaliana insbesondere unter Stressbedingungen eine entscheidende Aufgabe bei der „Entsorgung“ überschüssiger Reduktionsäquivalente aus den Chloroplasten übernimmt. Auf diese Weise kommt der AOX1A-Isoform eine besondere Bedeutung bei der Optimierung der Photosyntheserate bzw. dem Schutz der photosynthetischen Elektronentransportkette vor Überreduktion zu. Des Weiteren wurde herausgefunden, dass das Fehlen des AOX1A-Isoenzyms nach AA-Behandlung in A. thaliana zu einer erhöhten Expression der AOX1D-Isoform führt.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / A FotossÃntese e a respiraÃÃo sÃo bem conhecidos como sendo responsÃveis pela produÃÃo de energia no interior das cÃlulas de plantas. Acoplados à estes processos bioenergÃticos, a transferÃncia de elÃtrons que ocorre nas membranas do cloroplasto e mitocÃndria, tambÃm sÃo considerados com tendo potencial de produÃÃo de ROS. PossÃveis interaÃÃes no funcionamento dessas organelas permanecem pouco conhecidas, especialmente em resposta a condiÃÃes de estresse. Sob estas condiÃÃes, sugere-se que as vias de transferÃncia de elÃtrons ligadas à AOX, à pUCP ou à PTOX poderia limitar a formaÃÃo de ROS reduzindo assim danos oxidativos Ãs organelas celulares. Em nosso trabalho, foram selecionadas duas cultivares de Vigna unguiculata, inicialmente caracterizados como sensÃvel (cv 1183) ou tolerante (cv EPACE1) à seca. Sob condiÃÃes experimentais, as duas cultivares nÃo apresentaram diferenÃas significativas na sensibilidade à seca. Entretanto o cultivar EAPCE1 foi mais tolerante ao ozÃnio com base no desenvolvimento de necrose e de vÃrios parÃmetros fisiolÃgicos (ϕPSII) e bioquÃmicos (teor de glutationa). Para os perfis de expressÃo de genes que codificam AOX, PUCP e PTOX duas respostas foram claramente identificadas no cultivar EPACE1. Em um tempo curto, a expressÃo destas proteÃnas à geralmente estimulada. Em um perÃodo mais longo (14 dias), a resposta à diferente, dependendo da tipo de estresse. Sob o ozÃnio, um aumento da expressÃo das proteÃnas mitocondriais à mantida enquanto o gene que codifica para a PTOX à sub-regulada. Sob seca a proteÃna desacopladora do plastÃdio (PTOX) à superexpressa. Sob condiÃÃes de combinaÃÃo stress, seca combinada com ozÃnio, o efeito da seca sobre o fluxo de ozÃnio nas folhas nÃo foi alterado, e os genes VuPTOX e VuUCP1b sÃo super-expressos depois de 3 e 7 dias de stress. Este aumento da expressÃo, jà observado em resposta à seca por aplicada separadamente poderia desempenhar um papel na prevenÃÃo da formaÃÃo de ROS tanto em mitocÃndrias e cloroplastos prevenindo assim os danos causados pelo ozÃnio. / Possible interactions between chloroplast and mitochondria remain poorly known, particularly in response to stress conditions. Under these conditions, it is suggested that the electron transfer pathways linked to AOX or pUCP (mitochondrial uncoupling proteins) and PTOX (plastidial uncoupling protein) could limit the formation of ROS to reduce oxidative damage in cellular organelles. In our work, we selected two cultivars of Vigna unguiculata, cv 1183 and cv EPACE. Under our experimental conditions, both cultivars showed no real differences in sensitivity to drought. However cv EPACE was more tolerant to O3 based on the development of necrosis and several physiological parameters (Fv/Fm, ϕPSII) and biochemical (glutathione content). For the expression profiles of genes encoding AOX, PUCP and PTOX two responses were clearly identified in the cultivar EPACE. On a shortterm, expression of these proteins is generally stimulated. On a longer term (14 days), the answer differs depending on the treatment. Under O3, the strongest expression of mitochondrial proteins is maintained while the gene encoding the PTOX is own-regulated. Under drought only the plastid protein (PTOX) is upregulated. Under conditions of stress combination, drought has little effect on the influx of O3 in the leaves, and the VuPTOX and VuUCP1b genes are up-regulated after 3 and 7 days of stress. This ver-regulation, already observed in response to drought alone could play a role in preventing the formation of ROS in both mitochondria and chloroplasts.