Steven Michael Ford, do hereby declare that this thesis is my own unaided work. This thesis has not been submitted in part or in full at this or any other university. This report is submitted in fulfilment of the degree of Master of Science in Engineering at the University of the Witwatersrand. / Aluminium, although often possessing adequate strength and toughness for a specific application, may be deemed unsuitable due to a less than satisfactory corrosion resistance. This unacceptable behaviour is especially prominent in the local mining industry where aluminium alloys corrode severely in the high chloride and sulphate containing waters. Of notable importance and the major motivating force for this research was the historically poor perfomance of aluminium alloy mine cages, which are suited to the task excepting for their unsatisfactory corrosion resistance. Of general importance however, is that the mining sector in South Africa represents a sizeable portion of the economy and could thus become a much greater consumer of aluminium if the metal's corrosion resistance could be improving Apart from varying the composition of the alloy, the other basic technique of increasing a metal's resistance to an environment is by applying a coating of some sort. This research looks into the use of aluminium-based metal sprayed coatings as a form of protection for various aluminium and steel substrate alloys. The purpose of a metal sprayed layer is not merely to isolate the substrate from the environment, hut also to act as a sacrificial anode at regions where the substrate is exposed. Previous work suggested that alloys of aluminium/zinc/indium produced excellent sacrificial anodes and were thus selected for this research. The zinc and indium were always alloyed with pure aluminium, with the percentage zinc varying between 0 and 12%. All the coating alloys were sprayed on a AA6261 and AA5083 aluminium alloys, a metal matrix composite and a mild steel alloy, Various electrochemical and immersion trials were then carried out in several synthetic mine waters and other corrosive media. The basic conclusion to be drawn from the results achieved is that the optimum coating for a particular substrate alloy is the one that provides the greatest potential difference between it and the substrate, while still lasting the required lifetime of the component. The reason for this is that the greater the potential difference, the better the sacrificial protection and hence the better the protection offered to any exposed areas on the surface. The fact that the coating corrodes away with time means that a balance must be found between sacrificial behaviour and required lifetime. / Andrew Chakane 2018

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Johannesburg, August 2017 / Titanium aluminides Ti3Al (α2), γ-TiAl and TiAl3 have received much attention for potential applications where light weight for energy saving, room temperature corrosion resistance in aqueous solutions, high-temperature oxidation resistance, or where combinations of the above are needed. Gamma-TiAl of composition Ti-47.5 at.% Al with additions of platinum group metals (PGMs: Pt, Pd, Ru and Ir) was investigated for microstructure, hardness, room temperature aqueous corrosion, high-temperature oxidation resistance, mechanical alloying and consolidation by spark plasma sintering, and coating on titanium Grade 2 and Ti-6Al-4V substrates. Gamma-TiAl of Ti-47.5 at.% Al produced by melting and casting gave a microstructure consisting of γ grains and lamellar grains with alternating of α2 and γ phase lamellae. Additions of 0.2, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 at.% PGMs introduced new phases of high PGM contents. The γ and lamellar phases were still present. The additions of PGMs significantly improved the aqueous corrosion properties at room temperature, by improving the pitting corrosion resistance of the γ-TiAl alloy by modifying its hydrogen evolution of the cathodic reaction. The presence of PGMs also influenced the oxidation behaviour of γ-TiAl at 950°by forming the Z-phase which stabilized a continuous protective Al2O3 phase. However, Ti-47.5 at.% Al, being a two-phase alloy (α2+γ), PGMs could not sustain a stable Z-phase, as it transformed into an oxygen supersaturated Ti3Al, which subsequently led to the formation of TiO2+Al2O3, a non-protective oxide mixture. The optimal PGM addition to γ-TiAl was 0.5 at.%, with iridium giving the best room temperature corrosion and high-temperature oxidation resistance. Mechanical alloying of Ti and Al pure powders with PGM additions gave powders where α2 and γ were only identified after heat treatment. Consolidation of the mechanically alloyed powders by spark plasma sintering gave different microstructures from the cast alloys, with continuous α2 and γ phases and evenly distributed nanometer-sized alumina, and much higher hardnesses. Cold spraying the mechanically alloyed powders on to titanium Grade 2 and Ti-6Al-4V substrates gave coatings of irregular thickness, dense near the substrates with porosity at the top, giving poor oxidation protection. / CK2018

Les assemblages soudés sont de plus en plus envisagés pour remplacer les assemblages par rivetage dans l’objectif d’alléger les structures aéronautiques. La technique de soudage par Friction Stir Welding (FSW) est la solution choisie pour souder sans apport extérieur de matière et en phase solide. Des assemblages soudés autogènes et hétérogènes d’alliages d’aluminium des familles 2XXX (Al-Cu-Mg et Al-Cu-Li) et 7XXX (Al-Zn-Mg) ont été étudiés. La sensibilité à la corrosion de ces soudures et leur tenue mécanique sous l’effet de l’environnement ont été évaluées avec une approche multi-échelle. Pour cela, des essais normalisés de corrosion ont d’abord été réalisés, suivis d’une analyse plus fine par des techniques électrochimiques locales qui a permis de quantifier la réactivité des différentes zones de la soudure. D’autre part, une analyse microstructurale a permis d’expliquer les comportements en corrosion de chacune de ces zones. Nous avons ainsi montré que, dans le cas des soudures autogènes, la microstructure était responsable des phénomènes de corrosion localisée tandis que, dans le cas des soudures hétérogènes, l’attaque était plus homogène sous l’effet de couplages galvaniques macroscopiques. / In order to lighten aircraft structures, welded joints are more and more considered to replace riveted joints. The Friction Stir welding process is the appropriate solution to join without addition of outer material and in semi-solid phase. Similar and dissimilar welded joints of 2XXX (Al-Cu-Mg and Al-Cu-Li) and 7XXX (Al-Zn-Cu) aluminium alloys were studied. Corrosion sensitivity of these welds and their stress corrosion cracking were evaluated with a multiscale approach. For this, first, normalized corrosion tests were performed; then, a finer analysis was carried out using local electrochemical techniques which allows to quantitate the reactivity of the different weld zones. In other hand, a microstructural analysis allowed to explain corrosion behaviours of each weld zone. We showed localized corrosion phenomena were restricted in the similar FSW joints because of microstructural heterogeneities whereas attack in dissimilar welds was more homogeneous under the effect of macroscopic galvanic coupling.

Hot tearing is a common and severe defect encountered in alloy castings and perhaps the pivotal issue defining an alloy's castability. Once it occurs, the casting has to be repaired or scraped, resulting in significant loss. Over the years many theories and models have been proposed and accordingly many tests have been developed. Unfortunately many of the tests that have been proposed are qualitative in nature; meanwhile, many of the prediction models are not satisfactory as they lack quantitative information, data and knowledge base. The need exists for a reliable and robust quantitative test to evaluate/characterize hot tearing in cast alloys. This work focused on developing an advanced test method and using it to study hot tearing in cast aluminum alloys. The objectives were to: 1) develop a reliable experimental methodology/setup to quantitatively measure and characterize hot tearing; and 2) quantify the mechanistic contributions of the process variables and investigate their effects on hot tearing tendency. The team at MPI in USA and CANMET-MTL in Canada has collaborated and developed such a testing setup. It consists mainly of a constrained rod mold and the load/displacement and temperature measuring system, which gives quantitative, simultaneous measurements of the real-time contraction force/displacement and temperature during solidification of casting. The data provide information about hot tearing formation and solidification characteristics, from which their quantitative relations are derived. Quantitative information such as tensile coherency, incipient crack refilling, crack initiation and propagation can be obtained. The method proves to be repeatable and reliable and has been used for studying the effects of various parameters (mold temperature, pouring temperature and grain refinement) on hot tearing of different cast aluminum alloys. In scientific sense this method can be used to study and reveal the nature of the hot tearing, for industry practice it provides a tool for production control. Moreover, the quantitative data and fundamental knowledge gained in this thesis can be used for validating and improving the existing hot tearing models.

"Aluminum alloy cleanliness has been in the limelight during the last three decades and still remains as one of the top concerns in the aluminum casting industry. In general, cleaning an aluminum alloy refers to minimizing the following contaminants: 1) dissolved gases, especially hydrogen, 2) alkaline elements, such as sodium, lithium, and calcium, and 3) unwanted solid particles, such as oxides, carbides, and a variety of intermetallic compounds. Extensive research has resulted in significant improvements in our understanding of the various aspects of these contaminants, and in many foundries, melt-cleansing practices have been established and are routinely used. However, with the ever-increasing demands for improved casting properties, requirements for molten metal cleanliness has become extremely stringent. Rotary degassing is one of the most efficient ways of cleansing molten metals, thus removal of unwanted particles and dissolved hydrogen from molten aluminum alloys by rotary degassing has become a widely used foundry practice. Rotary degassing involves purging a gas into the molten alloy through holes in a rotating impeller. Monatomic dissolved hydrogen either diffuses into these gas bubbles or it forms diatomic hydrogen gas at the bubbles’ surface; in any case, it is removed from the melt with the rising bubbles. Simultaneously, solid particles in the melt collide with one another due to turbulence created by the impeller and form aggregates. These aggregates either settle to the furnace floor, or are captured by the rising gas bubbles and are also removed from the melt. The objective of this work is to understand the physical mechanisms underlying the removal of dissolved hydrogen and unwanted solid particles from molten aluminum alloys by the rotating impeller degasser, and to develop a methodology for the effective use of the degassing process by providing mathematical models and computer simulations of the process. The models and simulations can be used to optimize the process, design new equipment and determine the cause of specific operational problems."

A 6061 aluminum probe was quenched with the CHTE probe-quenching system in distilled water while varying bath temperature and the level of agitation. Time vs. temperature data was collected during the quench by use of an ungrounded K-type thermocouple embedded inside the probe. Cooling rates and heat transfer coefficients, h, were calculated and Quench Factor Analysis (QFA) was also performed to quantitatively classify the quench severity. The data showed an increase in both maximum cooling rate and heat transfer coefficient and a decrease in the Quench Factor, Q, as bath temperature decreased and agitation level increased. Maximum heat transfer coefficient values ranged from 1000 W/m2K to 3900 W/m2K while maximum cooling rates of 50¡ÃƒÂ£C/s to 190¡ÃƒÂ£C/s were achieved. In addition, it was found that at higher levels of agitation, there was also an increase in the variation (i.e. standard deviation) of the cooling rate and therefore h and Q.

"Aluminum-Silicon and Aluminum-Copper alloys are important non-ferrous casting alloys. Different methods have been applied to improve their casting characteristics, their microstructure and consequently, their mechanical properties. Application of mechanical vibrations to the mold during solidification of the alloy is one of these methods. In this study, the effect of controlled mechanical vibrations on the dendrite coherency point, the hot tearing tendency, and the microstructure of B206, B390, and binary Al-7%Si alloys was evaluated. The dendrite coherency point was determined using the two-thermocouple method. The hot tearing tendency was evaluated using the crack susceptibility criterion (CSCb) and by means of measurements using a specially designed ring mold. Microstructure characterization was performed using optical and scanning electron microscopy coupled with image analysis. It was found that mechanical vibrations refine the microstructure of the alloys; and, in the case of B390 alloy, it resulted in significant improvement in the distribution of the primary silicon particles. In the case of B206 and Al-7%Si alloys, where aluminum is the primary phase, mechanical vibrations caused the dendrite coherency point to shift towards lower temperature, i.e., towards higher fraction solid. This shift, together with the refinement of the grain structure, manifested itself in significant reduction in the incidence of hot tearing in B206 castings. "

Thesis. 1975. Ph.D.--Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering. / Vita. / Includes bibliographical references. / Ph.D.

Les alliages d’aluminium, présentant un rapport résistance-poids élevé, sont capables de répondre aux exigences de réduction de masse et d’augmentation de sécurité dans la construction de nouveaux véhicules. Cependant, lors des opérations d’emboutissage, ces alliages présentent une plus faible formabilité et un retour élastique plus élevé que les aciers traditionnellement utilisés. L’emboutissage à température moyenne (qualifiée de tiède) apparaît comme une solution très intéressante pour résoudre ces problèmes. Néanmoins, l’emboutissage pour les alliages d'aluminium de la série 6000, reste toujours un défi car la gamme de température utilisée est proche de celle utilisée lors des traitements thermiques de ces alliages. Ainsi l’augmentation de la température peut entraîner un durcissement par précipitation. En outre, ces alliages sont susceptibles de vieillir naturellement. Tous ces changements doivent être prédits pour éviter des variations dans le process de production. Dans ce contexte, l'objectif principal de ce travail a été d'analyser les conditions d’emboutissage à tiède de deux alliages d’Al-Mg-Si (l'EN AW 6016-T4 et l'EN AW 6061-T6), afin de d’améliorer la robustesse des opérations d’emboutissage. Des essais de traction et des essais d’emboutissage de godets cylindriques en température ainsi que des mesures de retour élastique (essai dit de Demeri) ont été effectués. Plusieurs paramètres comme le vieillissement naturel, la durée de chauffe et la vitesse d’emboutissage ont été étudiés afin de proposer des solutions permettant d’améliorer la robustesse des opérations d’emboutissage. L’emboutissage à tiède se révèle être une solution efficace pour améliorer la formabilité, réduire le retour élastique et la variabilité causée par le vieillissement naturel. Cependant, utiliser des vitesses d’emboutissage élevées et une chauffe rapide sont nécessaire pour éviter le durcissement par précipitation pendant l’emboutissage. / Heat treatable aluminum alloys present a high strength-to-weight ratio, which replies to the requirements of mass reduction and safety increase in the construction of new vehicles. However, in sheet metal forming operations, these alloys have lower formability and higher springback than traditionally mild steels used. In this context, forming in warm temperature appears as an attractive solution to solve these problems. Nevertheless, there is still a challenge since the temperature range used in warm forming is similar to one used in the heat treatment of these alloys. Thus increasing the temperature can lead to precipitation hardening, which modifies the thermo- mechanical behavior of the material. In addition, these alloys are prone to natural aging that causes variability in forming operations and increases the amount of scrap. The present study addresses the warm forming of two heat-treated Al-Mg-Si alloys (EN AW 6016-T4 and EN AW 6061-T6), in order to propose solutions that can contribute to the increase of robustness of sheet metal forming operations. The influence of natural aging, temperature and exposure time has been studied by using uniaxial tensile tests, cylindrical cup tests and the split ring tests. The main goal is to propose solutions to improve the robustness of the sheet metal forming process. Warm forming proves to be an effective solution for improving formability, reducing the springback and variability caused by natural aging. However, high forming speeds and fast heating are necessary to prevent precipitation hardening during forming operations.

Orientador: Luis Rogerio de Oliveira Hein / Coorientador: Peterson Luiz Ferrandini / Banca: Marcelo dos Santos Pereira / Banca: Heloisa Andréa Acciari / Banca: Mirian de Lourdes Noronha Mota Melo / Banca: Rosinei Batista Ribeiro / Resumo: Ferramentas de processamento e análise digital de imagens foram desenvolvidas com a finalidade de avaliar a evolução da textura morfológica e cristalográfica da microestrutura da liga de alumínio 7075 sob diferentes níveis de deformação plástica por compressão uniaxial. Amostras da liga de alumínio 7075-T6 passaram por um processo de recozimento pleno seguido de um estágio de compressão uniaxial, obtendo níveis de deformações entre 25 e 65%. As microestruturas das amostras foram avaliadas em função dos parâmetros morfológicos dos precipitados, da reorientação dos planos cristalográficos dos grãos e da orientação das subestruturas formadas durante o processo de deformação. Para a caracterização foram utilizadas técnicas de difração de raios-X, microscopia eletrônica, microscopia óptica utilizando técnicas de polarização linear e circular, microscopia correlativa e processamento digital de imagens. Os resultados de difração de raios-X indicaram uma reorientação do plano cristalográficos (200) para o (220) após a deformação, e as técnicas de microscopia eletrônica identificaram precipitados de Mg2Si, Al7Cu2Fe e Al6(FeCu) na liga. A análise morfológica dos precipitados indicou uma maior fragmentação dos precipitados devido à maior ativação do plano (331) a partir de 39% de deformação. Por meio do processamento de imagens foi encontrada uma tendência de correlação entre os planos cristalográficos e a fração de área das fases, enquanto que os parâmetros morfológicos das subestrutur... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Digital image processing and analysis tools were developed to perform the AA 7075 crystallographic and morphologic texture evaluation under different level of plastic deformation by uniaxial compression. Samples of AA 7075-T6 were submitted to full annealing process followed by uniaxial compression, thus obtaining deformations between 25 and 65% of thickness. The samples microstructure evaluation was performed considering: precipitates morphological parameters, crystallographic lattices reorientation and deformation substructure orientation. The characterization technics were: X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, optical microscopy with polarization light, correlative microscopy and digital images processing. Xray diffraction results showed that the crystallographic plane (200) was reoriented to (220) after compression. The EDS analysis identified precipitates of Mg2Si, Al7Cu2Fe e Al6(FeCu). The precipitates morphological analysis showed an increase in fragmentation due to plane (331) at 39% of deformation. The digital image process of the samples etched with Barker reagents indicated a correlation between area fraction and the diffraction peaks, and the deformation substructures analysis made viable a qualitative characterization of the hardening process / Doutor