A terapia de quelação tem sido descrita na literatura como uma ferramenta importante no combate de processos neurodegenerativos como a doença de Alzheimer (AD). Esta doença é caracterizada pela agregação de peptídeos β-amiloides, formando fibrilas, que parece ser induzida ou facilitada em presença de íons metálicos como Cu2+, Zn2+ ou Fe3+. Vários compostos já foram testados e descritos como ligantes competitivos para coordenar e retirar estes íons dos agregados proteicos em condições patológicas, na chamada hipótese da cascata amiloide. O presente projeto visou investigar a reatividade de ligantes imínicos, derivados de oxindóis, na quelação de cobre(II) e zinco(II), numa tentativa de inibir ou evitar a formação de agregados relacionados à AD. Foram sintetizados seis compostos imínicos, sendo duas hidrazonas inéditas: isahim e isahpy e quatro bases de Schiff: isapn, misapn, isaen e misaen, as três últimas também inéditas. Os compostos foram caracterizados por espectroscopia FTIR, RMN, UV/VIS e por análise elementar CHN e espectrometria de massas ESI-MS/MS. Os valores das constantes de estabilidade (log β 2,7 - 5,1) para a formação dos complexos [ML]2+ e do aduto [(Aβ1-16)2•isahim] em solução aquosa foram determinadas por espectroscopia UV/VIS. As formas de interação dos compostos isapn, misapn e isahim com o peptídeo Aβ1-16 foram analisadas por espectroscopia 1H RMN, observando-se uma forte interação com as histidinas His6, His13 e His14 e com os carboxilatos do peptídeo. A eficácia dos ligantes foi testada frente ao processo de inibição da agregação do peptídeo Aβ1-40 na presença e ausência de íons Cu2+ ou Zn2+ por turbidimetria. Estudos de docking e dinâmica molecular suportam que a interação dos ligantes imínicos com o peptídeo Aβ1-16 ocorre nos mesmos sítios de coordenação dos íons metálicos. Os resultados indicam que os compostos aqui estudados podem atuar como eficientes inibidores de agregação dos peptídeos amiloides implicados na AD. / Chelation therapy has been considered in the literature an important tool in neurodegenerative processes like Alzheimer disease (AD). This disease is characterized by aggregation of β-amyloid peptides that seems to be improved in the presence of metal ions, particularly copper, zinc and iron. Several compounds have been tested and reported as competitive ligands to withdrawal these metal ions from protein aggregates in pathologic conditions, in the \"amyloid cascade hypothesis\". The present project aims to investigate the reactivity of imine ligands, particularly those derived from oxindoles, in the chelation of copper(II) and zinc(II) ions trying to inhibit or avoid aggregate formation related to AD. Six iminic compounds were synthesized, being two of them hydrazones: isahim and isahpy and four Schiff bases: isapn, misapn, isaen, and misaen. The compounds were characterized by spectroscopic analysis (FTIR, NMR, UV/VIS), elemental analysis CHN and mass spectrometry ESI-MS/MS. The corresponding stability constants (log β 2,7-5,1) for each complex formation [ML]2+ as well as for the adduct [(Aβ1-16)2•isahim] in aqueous solution were determined by UV/VIS spectroscopy. Interactions of compounds isapn, misapn and isahim with the Aβ1-16 peptide were detected and analyzed by 1H NMR spectroscopy, indicating a strong interaction among the compounds and the histidines His6, His13 e His14 as well as the carboxylate residues in the peptides. The ligands efficiency toward the inhibition aggregation process for the Aβ1-40 peptide were evaluated in the presence, and in absence of Cu2+ or Zn2+ ions by turbidimetry. Computational calculations (docking and molecular dynamics) indicated that the interaction of the imine ligand with the Aβ1-16 peptide occurs in the metal coordination sites. The results indicate that these imine compounds studied may act as efficient inhibitors of amyloid peptides implicated in AD.

A terapia de quelação tem sido descrita na literatura como uma ferramenta importante no combate de processos neurodegenerativos como a doença de Alzheimer (AD). Esta doença é caracterizada pela agregação de peptídeos β-amiloides, formando fibrilas, que parece ser induzida ou facilitada em presença de íons metálicos como Cu2+, Zn2+ ou Fe3+. Vários compostos já foram testados e descritos como ligantes competitivos para coordenar e retirar estes íons dos agregados proteicos em condições patológicas, na chamada hipótese da cascata amiloide. O presente projeto visou investigar a reatividade de ligantes imínicos, derivados de oxindóis, na quelação de cobre(II) e zinco(II), numa tentativa de inibir ou evitar a formação de agregados relacionados à AD. Foram sintetizados seis compostos imínicos, sendo duas hidrazonas inéditas: isahim e isahpy e quatro bases de Schiff: isapn, misapn, isaen e misaen, as três últimas também inéditas. Os compostos foram caracterizados por espectroscopia FTIR, RMN, UV/VIS e por análise elementar CHN e espectrometria de massas ESI-MS/MS. Os valores das constantes de estabilidade (log β 2,7 - 5,1) para a formação dos complexos [ML]2+ e do aduto [(Aβ1-16)2•isahim] em solução aquosa foram determinadas por espectroscopia UV/VIS. As formas de interação dos compostos isapn, misapn e isahim com o peptídeo Aβ1-16 foram analisadas por espectroscopia 1H RMN, observando-se uma forte interação com as histidinas His6, His13 e His14 e com os carboxilatos do peptídeo. A eficácia dos ligantes foi testada frente ao processo de inibição da agregação do peptídeo Aβ1-40 na presença e ausência de íons Cu2+ ou Zn2+ por turbidimetria. Estudos de docking e dinâmica molecular suportam que a interação dos ligantes imínicos com o peptídeo Aβ1-16 ocorre nos mesmos sítios de coordenação dos íons metálicos. Os resultados indicam que os compostos aqui estudados podem atuar como eficientes inibidores de agregação dos peptídeos amiloides implicados na AD. / Chelation therapy has been considered in the literature an important tool in neurodegenerative processes like Alzheimer disease (AD). This disease is characterized by aggregation of β-amyloid peptides that seems to be improved in the presence of metal ions, particularly copper, zinc and iron. Several compounds have been tested and reported as competitive ligands to withdrawal these metal ions from protein aggregates in pathologic conditions, in the \"amyloid cascade hypothesis\". The present project aims to investigate the reactivity of imine ligands, particularly those derived from oxindoles, in the chelation of copper(II) and zinc(II) ions trying to inhibit or avoid aggregate formation related to AD. Six iminic compounds were synthesized, being two of them hydrazones: isahim and isahpy and four Schiff bases: isapn, misapn, isaen, and misaen. The compounds were characterized by spectroscopic analysis (FTIR, NMR, UV/VIS), elemental analysis CHN and mass spectrometry ESI-MS/MS. The corresponding stability constants (log β 2,7-5,1) for each complex formation [ML]2+ as well as for the adduct [(Aβ1-16)2•isahim] in aqueous solution were determined by UV/VIS spectroscopy. Interactions of compounds isapn, misapn and isahim with the Aβ1-16 peptide were detected and analyzed by 1H NMR spectroscopy, indicating a strong interaction among the compounds and the histidines His6, His13 e His14 as well as the carboxylate residues in the peptides. The ligands efficiency toward the inhibition aggregation process for the Aβ1-40 peptide were evaluated in the presence, and in absence of Cu2+ or Zn2+ ions by turbidimetry. Computational calculations (docking and molecular dynamics) indicated that the interaction of the imine ligand with the Aβ1-16 peptide occurs in the metal coordination sites. The results indicate that these imine compounds studied may act as efficient inhibitors of amyloid peptides implicated in AD.

La maladie d'Alzheimer (MA) est une neuropathologie complexe qui constitue la principale forme de démence chez l'être humain. Étroitement associée au vieillissement, elle se manifeste par une perte progressive de la mémoire et des fonctions cognitives. Avec 30 millions d’individus concernés au niveau mondial et des estimations voyant ce chiffre quadrupler d'ici 2050, elle constitue aujourd’hui une menace sociétale majeure. L’atrophie cérébrale observée chez les patients atteints de la MA est la conséquence d’un long processus de neurodégénérescence qui intervient au niveau moléculaire et s’amorce bien avant l’apparition des symptômes. Deux marqueurs histopathologiques ont été identifiés comme étant associés à ce processus : les plaques séniles, composées du peptide Abêta1-42 et les dégénérescences neurofibrillaires constituées de la protéine Tau. Ces deux molécules, considérées comme les protagonistes décisifs du développement de la MA, concentrent les recherches afin de mieux comprendre leurs rôles dans le processus neurodégénératif et pouvoir mettre en place des solutions thérapeutiques, inexistantes à ce jour. Un des axes de recherche majeurs se focalise sur l’interaction de ces molécules avec la membrane plasmique. L’occurrence d’un tel phénomène pourrait potentiellement être en cause dans la mort neuronale s’il s’avérait délétère. Il est donc capital d’étudier en détail ces processus afin d’identifier les facteurs qui pourraient conduire Abêta1-42 et Tau à endommager l’intégrité des membranes. De nombreux travaux ont démontré que certains lipides pouvaient promouvoir ces interactions. Cependant, les conclusions sont parfois divergentes et un consensus commun reste à trouver quant à leurs rôles. Ce travail de thèse s’est consacré à l’étude des modes d’action du peptide Abêta1-42 et d’un fragment clé de la protéine Tau, le peptide K18, sur des membranes modèles, en se focalisant principalement sur l’influence de certains lipides. Afin d’élucider les mécanismes qui régissent ces phénomènes, les processus de solubilisation membranaire ont dans un premier temps été étudiés avec des molécules amphiphiles bien caractérisées : les détergents. Cette étude a permis d’établir que les phénomènes de solubilisation membranaire peuvent varier en fonction de la composition membranaire et démontrer de la sélectivité lors de l’extraction lipidique. Le cœur du projet était de visualiser les effets des peptides amyloïdes Abêta1-42 et K18 sur des modèles membranaires, les bicouches supportées, avec pour principale technique d’investigation la microscopie à force atomique. Elle nous a permis d’observer ces phénomènes in situ, en conditions physiologiques et à l’échelle sub-micrométrique. Nous avons pu montrer que la composition membranaire était un facteur pouvant moduler l’interaction avec Abêta1-42. L'étude établit que les domaines lipidiques favorisent les perturbations membranaires induites par le peptide. Il est proposé que des défauts d'empilement lipidiques aux interfaces de ces domaines agissent comme des sites d'adsorption du peptide, menant à la destruction des membranes. En utilisant la même approche, avec des compositions lipidiques plus en adéquation avec la protéine Tau, nous avons pu observer que K18 induisait également des effets de perturbation en fonction de la nature des lipides dans la membrane et des propriétés qui leurs sont associées. Dans les deux cas, nous montrons les effets délétères que peuvent induire ces peptides, qui se manifestent par des effets de solubilisation comparables à ceux des détergents et qui sont dépendants de la composition des membranes. L’agrégation des peptides, qui peut conduire à leur fibrillation, n’a également été mise en évidence qu’en présence de lipides spécifiques. Ce travail de thèse apporte de nouvelles informations sur l’importance des lipides et leurs capacités à pouvoir moduler les interactions avec les peptides Abêta1-42 et K18. Par extension aux membranes cellulaires, ces phénomènes pourraient potentiellement être associés aux processus neurodégénératifs complexes impliqués dans la MA. / Alzheimer’s disease is a complex neuropathological disorder that constitutes the prime form of dementia. Intimately related to ageing, it is associated to the gradual loss of memory and cognitive functions in individual suffering from the pathology. With nearly 30 million people concerned today, and the alarming trends predicting this figure to increase fourfold by 2050, Alzheimer’s disease will constitute a major burden for our societies in the upcoming decades. The cerebral atrophy occurring within the brain results from slow and progressive neurodegenerative mechanisms triggered many years before the appearance of the first symptoms. Two histopathological markers have been identified as strongly associated to the neurodegeneration: the senile plaques, majorly composed of the amyloid peptide Abeta1-42, and the neurofibrillary tangles, constituted of the abnormally phosphorylated form of Tau protein. These two molecules, hence considered as the main culprits of the disease, are therefore under the spotlight of researchers who try to better understand their respective roles in the neurodegeneration process and uncover therapeutic solutions to a still uncurable disease. One of the promising research axis is focusing on the interplay between these molecules and the plasma membrane as potential interactions could convincingly rationalize the neural cell deaths if they happened to be deleterious. Therefore, investigate these interactions in detail is of primary importance to identify the factors that might drive Abeta1-42 and Tau to cause damages on membranes. A strong body of evidences has demonstrated that certain lipids could promote these interactions and are then suspected to be involved into detrimental phenomena. However, numerous results appear to be contradicting and consensual conclusions are still lacking. This PhD was dedicated to the investigation of the effects of Abeta1-42 and K18, a key peptide fragment of Tau protein, on membranes with a particular focus on the influence of lipids. The aim of this work was to elucidate the action mechanisms of these peptides. To first comprehend how membrane damages can be induced, we first focused on the solubilising ability of extensively used amphiphile agents: detergents. As a first study, we revealed that the membrane composition and the physicochemical properties of lipids play an important role in driving the solubilisation of the bilayer, a process that can even lead to a selectivity during the lipid extraction. The core part of the project was to visualize the effects of the amyloid peptides Abeta1-42 and K18 on supported lipid bilayers, used as membrane models, using atomic force microscopy as an investigation technique. With its high spatial resolution and its ability to operate in physiological milieu, this approach has shown that the membrane composition could promote membrane disruption induced by Abeta1-42 oligomers in a lipid-dependent manner. More importantly, we propose that packing defects at the interface of membrane domains act as adsorption and nucleation sites leading to membrane damages. Using the same strategy, we observed that K18 could also induce solubilisation phenomenon and demonstrated to be sensitive to the lipid nature. In both cases, we have highlighted that these peptides could be detrimental to supported lipid bilayers and that their disruptive abilities, associated to detergent-like mechanisms, were intimately dependent of lipids. We also show that the aggregation, a phenomenon that can lead to the peptide fibrillation can only be triggered in presence of certain lipids. This work provides important insights about the decisive role of the membrane composition in modulating interactions with the Abeta1-42 and K18. This interplay could constitute one of the numerous factors that promote neurotoxic phenomena, taking part in the complex neurodegenerative processes associated to Alzheimer’s disease.

Le Laboratoire de Recherche en Nanosciences EA 4682 s’est récemment équipé de la microscopie à force atomique haute-vitesse (HS-AFM) permettant la visualisation en temps réel des dynamiques d’interactions d’un panel infini d’échantillons biologiques à l’échelle nanométrique. De nombreux champ de recherche nécessite la mise au point de techniques permettant à la fois une imagerie dynamique (vidéomicroscopie) mais également de plus en plus une imagerie haute résolution (microscopie champ proche). Ce couplage a été récemment obtenu grâce au développement de la microscopie à force atomique ultra-rapide. La limitation actuelle de ce microscope ultra-rapide, à savoir l’acquisition d’informations en relation uniquement avec la surface de l’objet biologique étudié, crée un rempart à l’obtention de connaissances nouvelles sur les dynamiques sous-jacentes que renferment certains systèmes biomoléculaires. Pour s’affranchir de cette contrainte, nous nous proposons dans ce projet de faire évoluer notre outil de nanocaractérisation en lui ajoutant des fonctionnalités optiques et des fonctionnalités permettant de faire de la spectroscopie de force. La conduite de ce projet se fera selon un travail de développement instrumental scindé en deux grandes étapes : - l’apport d’outils de microscopie optique conventionnels : FRAP – FRET – FLIM – Fluorescence – TIRFM. Nous couplons ainsi la nanocaractérisation hautement résolue spatialement et temporellement avec des informations intrinsèques de nos échantillons. Cette complémentarité apparaît de plus en plus comme fondamentale dans les demandes des biologistes. - la mise au point de protocoles de fonctionnalisation de leviers AFM afin de réaliser de la spectroscopie de force et ainsi obtenir des informations sur les propriétés mécaniques des échantillons biologiques. Ce projet de recherche sera réalisé au Laboratoire de Recherche en Nanosciences EA 4682, Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne sous la direction du Pr. Michael Molinari et du Dr. Maxime Ewald récemment recruté en tant que maître de conférences (sept. 2013) et qui pu démarrer la thématique de la microscopie AFM haute-vitesse au sein de l’équipe. Il s’effectuera en collaboration avec le Pr. T. Ando du Biophysics Lab’ de l’Université de Kanazawa (Japon) pour la partie instrumentation, et avec le Dr. Gabriel Paës pour l’étude des échantillons biologiques. Les objets étudiés lors de cette thèse seront liés au projet ANR Lignoprog qui vient de démarrer au 1er novembre 2014 porté par Dr. Gabriel Paës (INRA UMR FARE, Reims). Dans ce projet, des échantillons biologiques se doivent d’être caractériser en dynamique. Ils concernent la biomasse lignocellulosique (BL), réseau complexe de polymères constituant les parois végétales (PV). La complexité architecturale et chimique de la BL est un frein à sa conversion industrielle. Pour atteindre ce but, non seulement la fraction cellulosique mais aussi les fractions hémicellulosiques et ligneuses doivent être valorisées, sinon les bio-raffineries ne seront pas compétitives. Le principal challenge à relever est celui du coût élevé et de la relative faible efficacité de l’étape de déconstruction enzymatique de la BL. Avec les fonctionnalités d’imagerie développées dans ce projet, nous espérons apporter des éléments de réponses sur la déconstruction enzymatique. Par ailleurs, même si les objets étudiés seront principalement ceux du projet Lignoprog, une validation du dispositif pourra être réalisée en parallèle sur d’autres échantillons biologiques tels que des cellules vivantes seront envisagées : caractérisation, mise en évidence leur réactivité vis-à-vis des divers paramètres physiologiques du milieu (pH, concentration, composition), corrélation de ces résultats avec leurs propriétés mécaniques. / Our laboratory recently acquired a high-speed atomic force microscope (HS-AFM) which enables us to visualize in real time a wide range of biological samples and their dynamics of interaction at nanoscale. Several research fields require the development of new techniques in order to get high resolution imaging and dynamic imaging at the same time. This is why HS-AFM was developed. Its current limitation is that the only data it provides are about the surface which means we can’t get access to what occurs beneath. This is limiting the knowledge we could get about the underlying dynamics of some biomolecular system. In order to overcome this issue, we propose to upgrade this nanocharacterization tool by combining optical microscopy and force spectroscopy. This project of instrumental development will be in two major steps: - the adding of conventional optical microscopy : fluorescence, TIRFM, FRAP, FRET, FLIM. The aim is to nanocharacterize sample with highly spatiotemporal data combined in combination with integral data (fundamental to respond to biological issues) - the development of tip functionalization protocols in order to achieve force spectroscopy and get mechanical properties of biological samples This project will take place at the Laboratory of Research in Nanosciences, EA 4682, University of Reims Champagne Ardennes, under the supervision of Pr. Michael Molinari and Dr. Maxime Ewald who started HS-AFM among our team. We will collaborate with Pr. T. Ando from the Biophysics Lab of Kanazawa University (Japan) for the instrumental part and with Dr. Gabriel Paës for the biological samples. The samples used during this thesis will be linked to an ANR project called Lignoprog directed by Dr. Gabriel Paës (INRA, UMR FARE, Reims) and started on the first of November, 2014. In the project, the dynamical aspect of the biological samples is essential. Indeed, lignocellulosic biomass is a complex network of polymers composing plant cell wall. Its architectural and chemical complexity prevents its industrial conversion. In order to be cost-effective, bio refineries need to valorize all the fractions: cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignins. The major challenge is the high cost and low efficiency of the enzymatic hydrolysis of the lignocellulosic biomass. Our aim is to bring some answer to understand better and improve enzymatic hydrolysis thanks to the HS-AFM and the combination of new functionalities. By the way, the disposal might be validated on other biological samples in parallel, such as live cells in order to characterize them, enlighten their reactivity in response to physiological parameters of the medium (pH, concentration, composition) and correlate the results with mechanical properties.