Idea generation and design-by-analogy are core parts of design. Designers need tools to assist them in developing creative and innovative ideas. Analogy is one such tool that helps designers solve design problems. It is a stimulus that helps generate innovative solutions to a design problem. It is used to generate novel ideas by transferring information (i.e. mapping elements) from a known domain (base) to an unknown domain (target). Multiple solutions can be developed based on a single analog and designers derive principles of design from the analogs (products) they experience. There is little research that discusses creating multiple solutions from a single analog or how multiple analogs can assist designers in mapping high level principles of design. Multiple paths are available to improve the design-by-analogy process and help designers understand the process better. This thesis explores two phases of design-by-analogy in which designers have difficulty generating multiple inferences from a single source analog and identifying high level principles given multiple example analogs in the presence of noise. Two hypotheses are proposed to explore the importance of analogies in design. 1. A lone designer is able to generate multiple inferences from a single source analog when instructed to do so. 2. The mapping of high level principles increases with the increase in the number of example analogs and decreases with the amount of noise. Two experiments, "Multiple Solutions" and "Multiple Analogies" are conducted to answer the proposed research questions and to understand how designers can become better analogical reasoners. The results from the "Multiple Solutions" experiment show that engineers, when directed to, can create multiple solutions from a single analog. Results from the "Multiple Analogies" experiment also satisfy the hypothesis that the mapping of high level principles increases with an increase in the number of analogs and decreases with distracters. A significant interaction is also observed between these two factors. The results indicate more future work with a greater sample size.

Idea generation is one of the major initial steps of the design process. Designers frequently use analogies to explain concepts, predict potential problems, and generate ideas. Analogous design can stimulate idea generation and lead to novelty and creativity. At present, there is little research that explores analogous design under the presence of irrelevant information, 'noise', or the effects of using analogies from semantically distant domains. An "Analogies and Noise" experiment extends previous findings which indicate that the use of two analogues instead of one can enhance analogous transfer. It tests whether this holds true for increased numbers of analogies. This study hypothesizes that analogue transfer improves with increasing number of example analogues and deteriorates under the presence of noise. The experiment evaluated this hypothesis by presenting designers with a design problem and a set of analogues and noise. Improvement was primarily measured by the rate of participants identifying the relevant high level principle (HLP). The results indicate that: (1) recognition of HLPs deteriorates under noise (2) increasing numbers of analogues under noise initially improves HLP recognition; however, once many items are present, designers are overwhelmed and the HLP recognition rate decreases (3) using two analogues is optimal for design and (4) noise cannot be defined as all those items without a functional feature relevant to the problem. A "Distant Domains" pilot experiment explores the use of distant-domain analogies. This study hypothesizes that distant domain analogies lead to more abstraction resulting in more creative designs. The experiment presented participants with a predetermined set of analogues then asked them to solve a problem. The set contained analogies from the problem domain and from a domain of varying distance. The following patterns were observed: (1) the number of emergent features peaked with near-domain analogies and decreased thereafter (2) the mean total number of ideas increased with increasing domain (3) designers deemed analogies from distant domains as 'less useful' and solutions generated using distant domains as 'less effective' and 'less practical'. These trends warrant future experimentation with an increased sample size.

To continue increasing the energy supply to meet global demand in the coming decades, the energy industry needs creative thinking that leads to the development of new energy sources. Unconventional gas resources, especially those in frontier basins, will play an important role in fulfilling future world energy needs. We must identify and quantify potential unconventional gas resources in basins around the world to plan for their development. Basin analog assessment is one technique that can be used to identify and quantify unconventional gas resources that is less expensive and less time consuming. We have developed a basin analog methodology that is useful for rapidly and consistently evaluating the unconventional hydrocarbon resource potential in exploratory basins. We developed software, Basin Analog System (BAS), to perform and accelerate the process of identifying analog basins. Also, we built a database that includes geologic and petroleum systems information of intensely studied North America basins that contain well characterized conventional and unconventional hydrocarbon resources. We have selected 25 basins in North America that have a history of producing unconventional gas resources. These are “reference” basins that are used to predict resources in frontier or exploratory basins. The software assists us in ranking reference basins that are most analogous to the target basin for the primary purpose of evaluating the potential unconventional resources in the target basin. The methodology allows us to numerically rank all the reference basins relative to the target basin. The accuracy of the results depends on the descriptions of geologic and petroleum systems. We validated the software to make sure it is functioning correctly and to test the validity of the process and the database. Finding a reference basin that is analogous to a frontier basin can provide insights into potential unconventional gas resources of the frontier basin. Our method will help industry predict the unconventional hydrocarbon resource potential of frontier basins, guide exploration strategy, infer reservoir characteristics, and make preliminary decisions concerning the best engineering practices as wells are drilled, completed, stimulated and produced.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Stanford University, 1985. / Cover title. "September 1985." Includes bibliographical references.

published_or_final_version / Sports Science / Master / Master of Science in Sports Science

This study aims at examining the use of analogy as a figure of speech in modern Chinese. Since the 20th century, there have been many invaluable research results among the definition, classification, rhetorical effects and rules of usage of analogy as a figure of speech in modern Chinese. Their research methods and frameworks, however, are different and cause obstructions of learning and further studies. In order to clear the problem, this study aims at examining the use of analogy as a figure of speech in modern Chinese. The thesis consists of 6 chapters. Chapter 1 is an introduction which outlines the background, objectives, major points and methodology of the research. Chapter 2 is a literature review. It points out different contents of related researches since the 20th century and shows the discrepancy between different research results. Nowadays, the definition, classification, rhetorical effects, rules of usage and comparison with other figures of speech were common categories of doing research in analogy as a figure of speech in modern Chinese. However, there are wide discrepancies between different research results in their definition and classification. Chapter 3 introduces a new definition of analogy. “Analogy is a figure of speech that under a specific context, the writer or the speaker uses one or more understandable or attractive things to express one or more non-understandable or unattractive things to produce more understandable or attractive rhetorical effects where the two or more things are different but similar in properties.” This new definition is illustrated after reviewing different definitions in other researches and after examining a sufficient amount of texts. Chapter 4 unifies the classification of analogy as a figure of speech. 60 kinds of analogy as a figure of speech are found presently, but their contents are seriously overlapping. A very detailed classification is illustrated in this chapter. The overlapping situation can be avoided by creating sub-groups in this system. Two versions were created. The detailed version can be used as a reference by linguistics experts whereas the simple version can be used for reference by secondary school students or the general public. Chapter 5 organizes and classifies the rhetorical effects and the rules of usage of analogy as a figure of speech. Using simple, concrete or familiar things to express difficult, abstract and unfamiliar things are conservative rules of usage. It helps to create an easy, concrete or familiar feeling. Using lifelike, bright or associated things to express ordinary, mediocre or dull things are aggressive rules of usage. It helps to create a lifelike, bright or unforgettable feeling. Chapter 6 is a conclusion which summarizes the findings and provides suggestions on researches in other figures of speech. This chapter states that research results of other figures of speech may also have discrepancies. Therefore, the methodology and finding of this study can be used as reference for other researches of other figures of speech. / published_or_final_version / Chinese / Master / Master of Philosophy

The present work examined subjects' performance on eight types of four word analogy problems. Two critical dimensions distinguish among these analogy types: specificity and inclusiveness. Whole-part analogies such as hand : palm as foot : sole (read hand is to palm as foot is to sole) are specific because the association appearing in the two word pairs consist of spatial/functional relationships which are highly similar to each other. In contrast, analogies such as car : wheel as boat : mast are nonspecific because they use whole-part associations which are less similar to each other. Analogies are inclusive if they use relatively direct associations, as in the whole-part association illustrated by car : wheel. In contrast, noninclusive analogies require additional inferences between words, as illustrated in the part-part association bumper: wheel, which requires the object car to be inferred. Responses from undergraduate university subjects show that both inclusive and specific analogy problems were solved more quickly than their noninclusive and nonspecific counterparts, respectively. Experiment 1 illustrated these specificity and inclusiveness effects both in a recognition (multiple choice) paradigm, and a recall paradigm where subjects spoke their own answer choices aloud. Subsequent experiments were performed to examine the role of the association types and the role of word attributes in subjects' processing of these analogy problems. Experiment 2 attempted to prime subjects with the association type used in each block of analogy problems, but showed a very modest effect on solution latencies. In Experiment 3 reordering the words within analogy problems unexpectedly increased the latencies for many problems, apparently because different words appeared in the third word positions within them. Experiments 4 and 5 focussed directly on the study of specificity. Experiment 4 showed that the processing benefit found for specific analogies is due to the close match of word attributes between word pairs, not due to the attributes of the particular words used. Experiment 5 manipulated the taxonomic similarity of the subject matter addressed by the two pairs of words, and found that the use of word pairs from more taxonomically distant subject areas increased solution latencies for some analogy types. Experiment 6 required subjects to group analogy problems into categories they defined. This procedure validated six of the eight analogy types used in this thesis; the specificity distinction was not evident among the groups of problems formed by subjects. The discussion of these results supports a theoretical model of problem solving four word analogies which incorporates a stage-like, componential processing for nonspecific types, and a faster, more automatic processing for specific types. The discussions of empirical and theoretical work in this thesis also focussed more widely on its relevance to more practical uses of analogies in problem solving.

This thesis explores the foundations of the complex and multifaceted work of Leonardo da Vinci as a whole. What underscores the universality of his research and transcends the artificial divisions of his vast body of work into modern categories of specialization, is the operation of analogy, which is grounded in a mimetic imagination. Leonardo's search is ultimately one of understanding the underlying causes that animate the universe and through analogy, his work and his world hold together. Central to my investigation of the continuity of Leonardo's analogical mode of thinking and making, are questions pertaining to the body, architecture and representation. I put forth that only by appreciating the analogical nature of Leonardo's (re)search, can one access the meaning and value of his efforts and contribution.

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Analogies play a well-noted role in innovative design. Analogical reasoning is central to the practices of design-by-analogy and bio-inspired design. In both, analogies are used to derive abstracted principles from prior examples to generate new design solutions. While numerous laboratory and classroom studies of analogy usage have been published, relatively few studies have systematically examined real-world design-by-analogy to describe its characteristics and impacts. To better teach design-by-analogy and develop support tools for engineers, specific insights are needed regarding, for example, what types of product advantages are gained through design-by-analogy and how different design process characteristics influence its outcomes. This research comprises two empirical product studies which investigate analogical inspiration in real-world design to inform the development of new analogy methods and tools. The first, an exploratory pilot study of 57 analogy-inspired products, introduces the product study method and applies several categorical variables to classify product examples. These variables measure aspects such as the composition of the design team, the driving approach to analogical reasoning, and the achieved benefits of using the analogy-inspired concept. The full scale study of 70 analogy-inspired products uses formal collection and screening methods and a refined set of classification variables to analyze examples. It adopts a cross-sectional approach, using statistical tests of association to detect relationships among variables. Combined, these surveys of real-world analogy-inspired innovation inform the development of analogy tools and provide a general account of distant analogy usage across engineering disciplines. The cross-sectional product study method demonstrated in this work introduces a valuable tool for investigating factors and impacts of real-world analogy usage in design.