In exploring the role of social influences in the development of the self, the current study evaluated whether young adults use social comparisons in developing their hoped-for possible selves and, if so, whether their developmental process correlates with self-regulatory processes and positive mental health outcomes. The current study found the following: (1) the domains of hoped-for possible selves among young adults were related to the gender of the social comparison target, (2) the direction of young adults’ social comparison processes (upward or downward) did not significantly influence self-regulatory processes (self-efficacy and outcome expectancy) toward achieving their hoped-for possible selves, (3) strong masculine gender identification related to greater outcome expectancy, while strong feminine gender identification related to both greater self-efficacy and outcome expectancy, and (4) self-efficacy related to less state anxiety, trait anxiety, and depression, while outcome expectancy related only to less trait anxiety. Males and females were found to use traditional gender role identification in forming their hoped-for possible selves.

Introduction: Haemophilia is an inherited bleeding disorder caused by a deficiency in one of the coagulation or blood clotting factors in the blood. When injured someone with haemophilia does not bleed more intensely than a person without haemophilia, but they tend to bleed for a much longer time. For people affected by severe haemophilia, the deficiency in coagulation factor can cause spontaneous internal bleeding in joints and muscles, as well as intracranial bleeding, and bleeding in soft tissues (e.g. nosebleeds or bleeding gums). The most common form is Haemophilia A which is caused by a deficiency in factor VIII. Haemophilia B is caused by a deficiency of factor IX and tends to be less severe than haemophilia A. Haemophilia is treated by replacing the deficient coagulation factor in the blood through intravenous injections of factor concentrate. Treatment can be on-demand, where medication is used to treat a bleeding episode; or preventative, where factor replacement treatment is used to increase the concentration of coagulation factor in the blood to prevent bleeding. Most young people with severe haemophilia in the UK follow a preventative treatment regimen (prophylactic treatment or prophylaxis). Patients with severe haemophilia A usually take 3 or 4 injections per week on alternate days, whereas patients with severe haemophilia B usually take 2 or 3 injections per week. There is good evidence that prophylaxis reduces bleeds and joint damage, whilst also improving quality of life. Therefore it is imperative for future health and functioning that young people with haemophilia (YPH) follow the prophylactic regimen they agreed with their haemophilia team. However, reported adherence levels among YPH vary widely (17 - 93%). Additionally, drivers of (non)adherence among YPH specifically have not been evidenced. Aims: The overall aim of the research described in this thesis was to gain a better understanding of the extent to which YPH adhere to their prophylactic treatment, and better understand what drives their (non-)adherence. The aims of the quantitative questionnaire study were to measure levels of adherence among YPH, and to assess whether psychosocial factors that have been shown to be associated with adherence among young people with other chronic illnesses, such as self-efficacy and social support, are also associated with adherence among YPH. Based on previous research on adherence and social cognitive models of illness, it was hypothesised that: - there would be differences between adolescents and young adults in relation to psychosocial correlates of adherence. - higher perceptions of pain and impact of pain would be associated with better adherence (De Moerloose, Urbancik, Van Den Berg, & Richards, 2008; Treil, Rice, & Leissinger, 2007). - higher perceptions of chronicity, consequences and treatment control would be predictive of higher adherence (Chilcot et al., 2010; Horne & Weinman, 2002). - greater perception of necessity of prophylaxis would be predictive of higher adherence whereas concerns about prophylaxis would not be predictive (de Thurah, Nørgaard, Harder, & Stengaard-Pedersen, 2010; Horne et al., 2013; Horne & Weinman, 1999; Llewellyn, Miners, Lee, Harrington, & Weinman, 2003; Wileman et al., 2014). - greater negative mood would be associated with lower adherence scores (Cox & Hunt, 2015; Helgeson, Siminerio, Escobar, & Becker, 2009; Snell, Fernandes, Bujoreanu, & Garcia, 2014). In addition, based on evidence that lower adherence results in worse disease outcomes (Berntorp, 2009; M. J. Manco-Johnson et al., 2007), it was anticipated that non-adherence to prophylaxis would be associated with higher numbers of bleeds and hospital visits. The aims of the qualitative interview studies with YPH, parents of YPH, and haemophilia healthcare professionals were to examine perceptions and experiences in relation to prophylaxis and how they make sense of these experiences. It was anticipated that this would provide evidence to gain a better understanding of the complexities surrounding prophylaxis and of the barriers and facilitators to adherence among YPH.

Researchers are recognizing the importance of examining underlying family functioning in order to understand the varying influences of parental divorce on offspring. The current study investigated the relations among young adults’ attachment styles, their reported family-of-origin functioning and parents’ marital status (divorced or non-divorced), and their current feelings about and attitudes towards marriage, in a sample of 537 young adults, half of whom experienced the divorce of their parents. The results demonstrate that knowledge of divorce status alone does not tell the whole predictive story for a child’s later relational connections and attitudes. In fact, parental marital status may, at times, act as a proxy for lower intimacy, fewer democratic parenting practices, and higher conflict in the family. Family-of-origin functioning, and, in particular, higher levels of intimacy, was the best predictor of the young adult’s secure attachment in close relationships. Although adult children from divorced households did report more negative feelings and opinions of marriage, parents’ marital status, attachment style and family-of-origin functioning variables were all important in explaining their feelings about and attitudes towards marriage. Notably, those with higher levels of attachment avoidance were more likely to express negative feelings and opinions about marriage. It may be that the role of family functioning on attitude towards marriage includes an indirect pathway: Family-of-origin functioning predicts a young adult’s attachment style in close relationships, which, in turn, can have an important influence on their feelings about and attitudes towards the institution of marriage. Ultimately, we document that if a family-of-origin is experienced to be cohesive and close – even if parents do divorce – it appears that young adult children can still feel securely attached in their close relationships and still feel positively towards marriage. Therefore, the “intergenerational transmission of divorce,” is neither automatic nor inevitable and this term should no longer be utilized in the divorce literature. / Graduate

Magister Psychologiae - MPsych / It is commonly known that South African society is characterised by high rates of exposure to violence and traumatic events. However, there is a convincing body of knowledge that indicates that a significant proportion of young adults exposed to traumatic events do not develop negative, trauma-related symptoms, but rather adapt in a positive manner

Bakgrund: Under tidigt 1990-tal drabbades Uganda av en HIV epidemi och var ett av dehårdast drabbade länderna söder om Sahara. Mellan 1990 - 2010, sjönk antalet Hivinfekteradepersoner från 18 till 6 %, till följd av ökad medvetenhet och mer säkert sex. Idag har Ugandaen av de högsta nivåerna av nyligen infekterade människor. Unga vuxna i åldrarna 15–24 år ärden grupp med högst risk att bli infekterade med HIV i Uganda. Det är vanligt attsjuksköterskor runt om i världen har rådgivande samtal. Även om hur rådgivning utförs kanvariera så är målet att minska riskbeteenden och motivera till att ha säkert sex.Syfte: Syftet med den här kandidatuppsatsen är att beskriva legitimerade sjuksköterskorserfarenheter av att ha rådgivande samtal med unga vuxna om HIV.Metod: En kvalitativ studie med semistrukturerade intervjuer på Lubaga sjukhus i Kampala,Uganda. 12 legitimerade sjuksköterskor intervjuades från tre olika avdelningar, materialettranskriberades och analyserades med en induktiv kvalitativ analysmetod, inspirerat avBurnard.Resultat: Fyra teman identifierades: en komplex miljö att ha rådgivande samtal med ungavuxna, unga vuxnas försök till självhjälp, Socioekonomisk utsatthet kopplat till HIV och ungavuxnas känslor relaterat till HIV. Ur dessa fyra teman upptäcktes 11 kategorier.Konklusion: Legitimerade sjuksköterskor upplever att det finns både hjälpande och stjälpandefaktorer som påverkar deras rådgivande Sammanfattningsvis så orsakar unga vuxnas rädslaför HIV, stigma relaterat till HIV och socioekonomiska förhållanden hindrar för samtal ochhur resursfulla unga vuxna är underlättar för rådgivande samtal. / Background: In the early 1990’s Uganda suffered from a HIV-epidemic and was one of themost effected countries in Sub-Sahara Africa. However, from 1990 - 2010, the level of HIVinfected people dropped from 18 to 6 % due to awareness raising and less high-risk behaviorssuch as unsafe sex. Today, Uganda has one of the highest levels of newly infected people.Young adults in the ages 15 - 24 years old are the most exposed group to get infected withHIV in Uganda. Counseling is a common task in nursing all around the world. Although thespecifics of how counseling is performed could differ, the main goal is to reduce the numberof high-risk behaviors and motivate the person to engage in safe sex, including sexual contactand use of condoms.Aim: The purpose of this study is to describe nurses’ experiences of counseling young adultsabout HIV.Method: A qualitative study with semi-structured interviews at Lubaga hospital in Kampala,Uganda. 12 registered nurses were interviewed from three wards at the hospital, the materialwas transcript and then analyzed with an inductive qualitative content analysis approachinspired by Burnard.Results: Four themes were identified: a complex environment to counsel young adults in,young adult’s efforts to self-care, socio-economic challenges linked to HIV and young adult’sfeelings associated with HIV. Moreover, 11 categories emerged through the themes.Conclusion: Registered nurses experience both factors that burdens and facilitate counseling.In conclusion, young adults fear of HIV, HIV-related stigma and socioeconomic factors posean obstacle when counseling young adults about HIV and young adults’ resources makescounseling easier.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the associations between body image, self-esteem, experiences with weight stigma, and fat bias in male and female young adults. Data were collected via a Qualtrics questionnaire using recruitment fliers posted on social media. Results suggest that female’s experience greater expectations in body size and image, and the higher the BMI the poorer the body image, self-esteem, and the greater the number of experiences with weight stigmatization. Implications for working with young adults with excess body weight will be discussed.

Magister Psychologiae - MPsych / Substance use and abuse has been a persistent challenge facing many communities around the world. In more recent times there has been particular focus on the gradual, yet alarming increase in the use and/or abuse of substance use among the students who are currently enrolled in institutions of higher learning. On the strength of such findings, relevant stakeholders and policy makers have since demarcated university students as being one of the most high-risk groups within a society when it comes to substance use and abuse. While substantial research has been done on the issue of alcohol use among adolescents on both a local and global scale, very little is known about the prevalence of substance use among university students in South Africa.

During 2020, there were many changes in circumstances in society due to covid-19. People lost their jobs and there was an increased uncertainty (Ekonomifakta, 2020). Meanwhile, the number of start-ups has never previously been as high in Sweden (Nordevik, 2021). This study has investigated why young adults have taken the decision to start a business in 2020 during the covid-19 crisis, as well as what role covid-19 has played. We have chosen to use a qualitative approach and to capture their subjective perceptions of making the decision, but also of the process, we decided to use a phenomenological method.  The theoretical framework includes research on entrepreneurial motivation, such as the push and pull theory. The theoretical framework also includes theories that acknowledge the individual, such as The Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991). This study is conducted within a Swedish context and the theoretical framework also includes the context for the young adults, since we wanted to investigate what potential external factors have led them to their decision of starting a business. Theories that have been included concerning what in the external environment that might have influenced the young adults to start their businesses are role models (Hazel & Nurius, 1986) and possible self-images (Bosma et.al., 2012). The theories in the theoretical framework have been applied to the context of this study and thereby created a relevant conceptual framework that has served as inspiration for the development of the interview guide.   To answer why young adults have taken the decision to start a business in 2020, we have used semi-structured interviews. Our sample has been young adults in the ages between 18-29, who started their company between March and December 2020. Our sample consists of nine young adults, distributed in eight interviews. There is a diversity between the respondents, both in age, but also in geographical location, gender and which industries they work in.  The young adults in this study have had their own, subjective explanations for why they started businesses in 2020 during the covid-19 crisis, and the entrepreneurial motivation of independence has been a large reason why. The respondents have not been forced to start their businesses due to the uncertain circumstances covid-19 brought and the pandemic has only been part of one respondent's decision. The respondents found the timing to be suitable and connections to entrepreneurial networks have also influenced the decision. All the young adults have received support from their closest surroundings, which has positively influenced them in taking their decision. Finally, risk-tolerance has been found to be part of why young adults have started their businesses, and previous experience of entrepreneurship has also been an explanation.

For researchers, suicide is a major concern in young adults. The additional stressors that may be present for gay or lesbian individuals may promote less adaptive characteristics than in heterosexual individuals. Gay and lesbian and heterosexual subjects completed the Reasons for Living Inventory (RFL) to determine levels of adaptive characteristics that may prevent suicidal behaviors. Results indicated that gay men and lesbian women endorsed less reasons for living than did heterosexual individuals. This reduced level of coping skills may be a result of increased responsibilities, demands, and stressors associated with choosing a homosexual lifestyle.

For researchers, suicide is a major concern in young adults. The additional stressors that may be present for gay or lesbian individuals may promote less adaptive characteristics than in heterosexual individuals. Gay and lesbian and heterosexual subjects completed the Reasons for Living Inventory (RFL) to determine levels of adaptive characteristics that may prevent suicidal behaviors. Results indicated that gay men and lesbian women endorsed less reasons for living than did heterosexual individuals. This reduced level of coping skills may be a result of increased responsibilities, demands, and stressors associated with choosing a homosexual lifestyle.