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This dissertation is focused on synthesis, characterization and formation mechanism of anionic-surfactant-templated mesoporous silica (AMS). Structural control mechanisms of AMS are investigated. First, different ionization degree of anionic surfactant affected by the acidity or alkalinity of the synthesis system gives rise to different charging density of micelles and therefore determines the organic/inorganic interface curvature, producing mesophases from cage-type to cylindrical, bicontinuous and lamellar. Second, mesocage/mesocage electrostatic repulsive interaction affects the formation of cage-type mesostructure, which is derived from a full-scaled synthesis-field diagram of AMS. The mesocage/mesocage interaction changes with charge density of mesocages and gives rise to their different packing manners. Third, the structural properties of AMS materials could be tuned by molecular features of surfactant and co-structure-directing agent (CSDA). The pore size of AMS is found to be controlled by alkyl chain length, ionization degree of surfactant and the CSDA/surfactant ratio. Alkyl chain length of surfactant determines size of micelles and thus mesopores. Larger ionization degrees of anionic surfactant give rise to smaller pore sizes due to thermodynamic coiling of alkyl chains of surfactant. The hydrophobic interactions between the pendant organic groups of CSDA on the silica wall and the hydrophobic core of the micelles drive a contraction of the mesopores. A mesoporous silica with novel bicontinuous cubic Pn-3m structure has been prepared using a diprotic anionic surfactant. 3d-reconstruction of the structure shows that it is bicontinuous composed of an enantiomeric pair of 3d mesoporous networks that are interwoven with each other, divided by a D surface. Inverse replication suggests the possible presence of ordered complimentary micropores in the material.

Neste trabalho foi avaliada a degradação de alquilbenzeno linear sulfonado (LAS) de água residuária de lavanderia comercial (ARLC) em reator anaeróbio de leito fluidificado (RALF) utilizando areia como material suporte, lodo oriundo de UASB empregado no tratamento de resíduos de suinocultura como inóculo e tempo de detenção hidráulica de 18 horas. O período de 330 dias de operação foi divido em quatro etapas: (a) etapa I, com adaptação da biomassa ao substrato sintético contendo etanol e sacarose (1:1 DQO); (b) etapa II, com adição de ARLC (18,2 ± 11,5mgLAS.L-1) ao substrato sintético mais etanol e sacarose (1:1 DQO); (c) etapa III, com adição de ARLC (25,4 ± 8,8 mgLAS.L-1) ao substrato sintético mais etanol e (d) etapa IV, com adição de ARLC (20,4 ± 5,8 mgLAS.L-1) ao substrato sintético, sem adição de fonte suplementar de carbono. Equilíbrio reacional ao longo das etapas de operação foi verificado em função da baixa concentração de ácidos orgânicos voláteis e sólidos suspensos voláteis efluente. Na etapa I, verificou-se 82,9 ± 13,6% de remoção de DQO para 683,9 ± 110,4 mgDQO.L-1 afluente. Para todas as etapas de operação, observou-se a manutenção dessa eficiência sempre superior a 88%. Verificou-se aumento da eficiência de remoção do surfactante de 51,7 ± 23,9% na etapa II na presença de etanol e sacarose (1:1 DQO) (872,3 ± 141,8 mgDQO.L-1 afluente), para 72,9 ± 18,8% na etapa III, somente com etanol (705,0 ± 155,8 mgDQO.L-1 afluente), e de 76,8 ± 16,9% na etapa IV, após a retirada das fontes suplementares de carbono (633,4 ± 156,88 mgDQO.L-1 afluente). A substituição de sacarose e etanol por somente etanol foi extremamente favorável para a remoção do LAS, isto porque foram identificadas alterações das populações microbianas de acordo com a modificação da fonte suplementar de carbono relacionadas, principalmente, ao nível taxonômico de família. Na etapa II, observou-se predomínio de representantes da família Comamonadaceae (abundância relativa de 47% no biofilme). Também para o biofilme das etapas III e IV, verificou-se decréscimo para menos de 4% da abundância relativa de representantes pertencentes à família Comamonadaceae. Todavia, verificou-se aumento da abundância relativa de representantes da família Rhodocyclaceae (18%, 88% e 77% no biofilme das etapas II, III e IV, respectivamente). O principal gênero da família Comamonadaceae identificado na etapa II foi Curvibacter, cujo crescimento pode estar associado a açúcares (abundância relativa de 28% no biofilme). Verificou-se decréscimo da abundância relativa deste gênero inferior a 0,9% nas etapas III e IV. Para os representantes da família Rhodocyclaceae foram identificados gêneros possivelmente relacionados à degradação do LAS: Dechloromonas, Georgfuchsia e Zoogloea (78%, 67% e 98% dos gêneros pertencentes à família Rhodocyclaceae identificados no biofilme das etapas II, III e IV, respectivamente). Por meio do sequenciamento massivo, 37 gêneros possivelmente relacionados à degradação do LAS foram identificados. Quarenta compostos xenobióticos, alguns tóxicos à biota aquática, foram detectados no efluente via cromatografia gasosa/espectrometria de massas. Verificou-se, por meio do índice de Bray-Curtis, maior similaridade entre a biomassa do biofilme e do separador de fases de uma mesma etapa do que entre amostras de biomassa de etapas de operação distintas, evidenciando que houve diferenciação das populações de acordo com a fonte de carbono empregada. Por meio do balanço de massa global, observou-se que somente 0,81% do LAS removido ficou adsorvido. / In the present study, the degradation of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) from laundry wastewater (LW) was investigated by using an anaerobic fluidized bed reactor (AFBR) with sand as support material, inoculum coming from a UASB reactor used in the treatment of swine manure, and hydraulic retention time of 18 hours. The operation time was divided into four stages: (a) stage I composed by the adaptation of the biomass in the presence of synthetic substrate containing sucrose and ethanol (1:1 COD); (b) stage II with addition of LW (18.2 ± 11.5mgLAS.L-1) plus synthetic substrate containing sucrose and ethanol (1:1 COD); (c) stage III with LW (25.4 ± 8.8 mgLAS.L-1) plus synthetic substrate containing ethanol; (d) stage IV with addition of LW (20.4 ± 5.8 mgLAS.L-1) plus synthetic substrate without supplementary carbon source. Low concentration of volatile organic acids and volatile suspended solids were observed in the reactor effluent indicating the system exhibited good stability. The COD removal efficiency was 82.9 ± 13.6% during the biomass adaptation in stage I (683.9 ± 110.4 mg.L-1 of COD influent). That removal efficiency was high throughout the operational time, exceeding 88%. The surfactant removal efficiency increased from 51.7 ± 23.9% in stage II with the presence of ethanol and sucrose (872.3 ± 141.8 mgCOD.L-1 influent) to 72.9 ± 18.8% in stage III, with only ethanol (705.0 ± 155.8 mgCOD.L-1 influent). In the stage IV, after the withdrawal of additional carbon sources, the removal efficiency was 76.8 ± 16.9% (633.4 ± 156.88 mgCOD.L-1 influent). The replacement of sucrose and ethanol by only ethanol favored the LAS efficiency removal due to the microbial community change according to the additional carbon source modification, what was mainly detected at family level. In stage II there was a predominance of representatives of Comamonadaceae family (relative abundance of 47% in the biofilm). That relative abundance decreased to less than 4% in stages III and IV. However, there was an increase in relative abundance of representatives of the Rhodocyclaceae family (18%, 88% and 77% of the biofilm in stages II, III and IV, respectively). The main genus of Comamonadaceae family identified in stage II was Curvibacter whose growth may be associated with sugars (relative abundance of 28% in the biofilm). That relative abundance was decreased to less than 0.9% in stages III and IV. For representatives of Rhodocyclaceae family, some genera possibly related to the degradation of LAS were identified: Dechloromonas, Georgfuchsia and Zoogloea (78%, 67% and 98% of the genera of the Rhodocyclaceae family identified in the biofilm from stages II, III and IV, respectively). By means of massive sequencing, 37 genera possibly related to degradation of LAS were identified. Forty xenobiotic compounds, some of them toxic to aquatic biota, were detected in the reactor effluent through gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry. According to the Bray-Curtis similarity, the samples collected in the same operation stage showed higher similarity coefficients than those collected in the same sampling site (biofilm from support material or phase separator). That result confirms the microbial community differentiation according to the carbon source employed. Through the overall mass balance, it was found that only 0.81% of LAS added was removed by adsorption.

A remoção do surfactante Alquilbenzeno Linear Sulfonado (LAS) de água residuária de lavanderia comercial foi estudada em EGSB (Expanded granular sludge bed). Essa água residuária foi diluída em esgoto sanitário. O volume útil do reator era de 1,8 L. Toda a operação ocorreu em condições mesofílicas, para TDH (tempo de detenção hidráulica) de 36 horas, velocidade ascensional de 4 m/h e vazão de recirculação de 8,5 L/h. A água residuária de lavanderia era diluída até que se atingisse aproximadamente 20 mg/L de LAS na alimentação do reator. O sistema foi operado em três fases. Na primeira fase de operação usou-se água de abastecimento para diluir a água residuária de lavanderia; na segunda fase utilizou-se uma mistura de água de abastecimento e esgoto sanitário para diluição da água residuária de lavanderia, sendo que 50 % da composição era esgoto sanitário; e, por fim, na última fase de operação utilizou-se apenas esgoto sanitário como diluente da água residuária. Na primeira fase foi necessária adição de bicarbonato de sódio como agente tamponante. Em todas as fases aplicou-se DQO (demanda química de oxigênio) e LAS afluente de 341 ± 216 mg/L e 18,8 ± 7,3 mg/L, respectivamente. A adição do esgoto sanitário afetou a remoção do surfactante, o que na fase inicial (Fase I) representou 77,2 ± 14,9 % e na fase final (Fase III) passou a ser 55,3 ± 18,4 % de remoção de LAS. No entanto, ao passo que a remoção de LAS diminuiu, a remoção de DQO aumentou de 57 ± 16 % para 65 ± 10 %, respectivamente, para a Fase I e Fase III. Além disso, devido a adição de esgoto sanitário verificou-se aumento do tamanho dos grânulos, de 3,67 ± 1,83 mm (Fase I) para 4,97 ± 1,99 mm (Fase II); e também da concentração de sólidos totais no reator, de 5,79 g/L (Etapa I) para 9,50 g/L (Fase III). Por meio do balanço de massa de LAS verificou-se remoção de 69 % de LAS, sendo que 67 % foram removidos por degradação e 2 % por adsorção do mesmo na biomassa. Por fim, por meio das análises por CG/EM (Cromatografia gasosa acoplada a espectrometria de massas) observou-se 17 substâncias no afluente e apenas 4 no efluente, tais como, mercaptanas, hidrocarbonetos, aminas e amidas. A maioria delas são tóxicas aos organismos aquáticos e estão presentes em produtos de limpeza e higiene pessoal. / The removal of the surfactant Linear Alkylbenzene Sulfonate (LAS) of wastewater of a commercial laundry was studied in an EGSB (Expanded granular sludge bed). This wastewater was diluted in sewage. The useful volume of the reactor was of 1,8 L. The whole operation occurred on mesophilic conditions, to HRT (Hydraulic Retention Time) was 36 hours, the upflow speed of 4 m/h and recirculation flow of 8,5 L/h. The laundry waste water was diluted until achieve 20 mg/L of LAS on the reactor feed. The system was operated in three stages. In the first operation stage water supply was used to dilute the wastewater laundry; in the second stage used a mixture of water supply and sewage for dilution of wastewater laundry and 50 % of the composition was sewage; and finally, in the last stage of operation is only used sewage as a diluent of wastewater. In the first stage was required addition of sodium bicarbonate as buffering agent. All the stages was applied COD (Chemical oxygen demand) and LAS influent 341 ± 216 mg/L and 18,8 ± 7,3 mg/L, respectively. The addition of sewage affected the surfactant removal, which on the first stage (Stage I) represented 77,2 ± 14,9 % and on the final stage (Stage III) became 55,3 ± 18,4 % of LAS removal. However, while removing of LAS decreased the COD removal increased from 57 ± 16 % to 65 ± 10 %, respectively, to Stage I and Stage III . Furthermore, due to the addition of sewage was checked an increased on the size of the grain from 3,67 ± 1,83 mm (Stage I) to 4,97 ± 1,99 mm (Stage II); and also the concentration of total solids into the reactor, from 5,79 g/L (Stage I) to 9,50 g/L (Stage III). By mass balance LAS was found a remove of 69 % of LAS, wherein 67 % were removed by degradation and 2 % by adsorption of the surfactant in the biomass. Finally, through analysis by GC/MS (gas chromatograph/mass spectrometry) 17 substances were observed in the influent and only 4 in the effluent, such as, mercaptans, hydrocarbons, amines and amides. Most of them are toxic to aquatic organisms and are present in cleaning products and personal hygiene.

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Intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) with high mechanical strength and electrical conductivity are attractive for several applications spanning the fields of energy, defense, and transportation. Electrochemically processed polythiophene (PTh) films are a class of ICPs that have been demonstrated recently to possess electrical conductivities as high as 1,300 S/cm and be stronger than common types of processed aluminum foils. While these results are promising, the electrical conductivity of PTh is still low compared to metals and the effects of important process conditions such as electrode resistance, distance between working and counter electrodes, and thiophene concentration on the structure and physical properties of electrochemically processed PTh films must be investigated in detail. In this work, electrode resistance and inter-electrode distance were demonstrated to be inversely proportional to the charge efficiency for PTh film growth. A critical concentration of thiophene that produced films with the highest conductivity was also revealed. Anionic surfactants sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and sodium dodeclybenzene sulfonate (SDBS) were used, with and without a proton scavenger, in the Lewis acid boron trifluoride diethyl etherate (BFEE) electrolyte, which allows polymerization of thiophene at low oxidation potentials, to enhance the ordering and conjugation length of PTh through stabilization of the radical cation of thiophene via the dodecyl chain of the anionic surfactants. X-ray diffraction spectra revealed enhanced order and packing when surfactant was used during the processing of PTh films, and measured electrical conductivities were increased by as much as 300% because of the surfactant-mediated structural improvements. Necking behavior observed in tensile test of PTh films with anionic surfactant additives also suggests chain alignment and increased chain length.

Neste trabalho foi avaliada a degradação de alquilbenzeno linear sulfonado (LAS) de água residuária de lavanderia comercial (ARLC) em reator anaeróbio de leito fluidificado (RALF) utilizando areia como material suporte, lodo oriundo de UASB empregado no tratamento de resíduos de suinocultura como inóculo e tempo de detenção hidráulica de 18 horas. O período de 330 dias de operação foi divido em quatro etapas: (a) etapa I, com adaptação da biomassa ao substrato sintético contendo etanol e sacarose (1:1 DQO); (b) etapa II, com adição de ARLC (18,2 ± 11,5mgLAS.L-1) ao substrato sintético mais etanol e sacarose (1:1 DQO); (c) etapa III, com adição de ARLC (25,4 ± 8,8 mgLAS.L-1) ao substrato sintético mais etanol e (d) etapa IV, com adição de ARLC (20,4 ± 5,8 mgLAS.L-1) ao substrato sintético, sem adição de fonte suplementar de carbono. Equilíbrio reacional ao longo das etapas de operação foi verificado em função da baixa concentração de ácidos orgânicos voláteis e sólidos suspensos voláteis efluente. Na etapa I, verificou-se 82,9 ± 13,6% de remoção de DQO para 683,9 ± 110,4 mgDQO.L-1 afluente. Para todas as etapas de operação, observou-se a manutenção dessa eficiência sempre superior a 88%. Verificou-se aumento da eficiência de remoção do surfactante de 51,7 ± 23,9% na etapa II na presença de etanol e sacarose (1:1 DQO) (872,3 ± 141,8 mgDQO.L-1 afluente), para 72,9 ± 18,8% na etapa III, somente com etanol (705,0 ± 155,8 mgDQO.L-1 afluente), e de 76,8 ± 16,9% na etapa IV, após a retirada das fontes suplementares de carbono (633,4 ± 156,88 mgDQO.L-1 afluente). A substituição de sacarose e etanol por somente etanol foi extremamente favorável para a remoção do LAS, isto porque foram identificadas alterações das populações microbianas de acordo com a modificação da fonte suplementar de carbono relacionadas, principalmente, ao nível taxonômico de família. Na etapa II, observou-se predomínio de representantes da família Comamonadaceae (abundância relativa de 47% no biofilme). Também para o biofilme das etapas III e IV, verificou-se decréscimo para menos de 4% da abundância relativa de representantes pertencentes à família Comamonadaceae. Todavia, verificou-se aumento da abundância relativa de representantes da família Rhodocyclaceae (18%, 88% e 77% no biofilme das etapas II, III e IV, respectivamente). O principal gênero da família Comamonadaceae identificado na etapa II foi Curvibacter, cujo crescimento pode estar associado a açúcares (abundância relativa de 28% no biofilme). Verificou-se decréscimo da abundância relativa deste gênero inferior a 0,9% nas etapas III e IV. Para os representantes da família Rhodocyclaceae foram identificados gêneros possivelmente relacionados à degradação do LAS: Dechloromonas, Georgfuchsia e Zoogloea (78%, 67% e 98% dos gêneros pertencentes à família Rhodocyclaceae identificados no biofilme das etapas II, III e IV, respectivamente). Por meio do sequenciamento massivo, 37 gêneros possivelmente relacionados à degradação do LAS foram identificados. Quarenta compostos xenobióticos, alguns tóxicos à biota aquática, foram detectados no efluente via cromatografia gasosa/espectrometria de massas. Verificou-se, por meio do índice de Bray-Curtis, maior similaridade entre a biomassa do biofilme e do separador de fases de uma mesma etapa do que entre amostras de biomassa de etapas de operação distintas, evidenciando que houve diferenciação das populações de acordo com a fonte de carbono empregada. Por meio do balanço de massa global, observou-se que somente 0,81% do LAS removido ficou adsorvido. / In the present study, the degradation of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) from laundry wastewater (LW) was investigated by using an anaerobic fluidized bed reactor (AFBR) with sand as support material, inoculum coming from a UASB reactor used in the treatment of swine manure, and hydraulic retention time of 18 hours. The operation time was divided into four stages: (a) stage I composed by the adaptation of the biomass in the presence of synthetic substrate containing sucrose and ethanol (1:1 COD); (b) stage II with addition of LW (18.2 ± 11.5mgLAS.L-1) plus synthetic substrate containing sucrose and ethanol (1:1 COD); (c) stage III with LW (25.4 ± 8.8 mgLAS.L-1) plus synthetic substrate containing ethanol; (d) stage IV with addition of LW (20.4 ± 5.8 mgLAS.L-1) plus synthetic substrate without supplementary carbon source. Low concentration of volatile organic acids and volatile suspended solids were observed in the reactor effluent indicating the system exhibited good stability. The COD removal efficiency was 82.9 ± 13.6% during the biomass adaptation in stage I (683.9 ± 110.4 mg.L-1 of COD influent). That removal efficiency was high throughout the operational time, exceeding 88%. The surfactant removal efficiency increased from 51.7 ± 23.9% in stage II with the presence of ethanol and sucrose (872.3 ± 141.8 mgCOD.L-1 influent) to 72.9 ± 18.8% in stage III, with only ethanol (705.0 ± 155.8 mgCOD.L-1 influent). In the stage IV, after the withdrawal of additional carbon sources, the removal efficiency was 76.8 ± 16.9% (633.4 ± 156.88 mgCOD.L-1 influent). The replacement of sucrose and ethanol by only ethanol favored the LAS efficiency removal due to the microbial community change according to the additional carbon source modification, what was mainly detected at family level. In stage II there was a predominance of representatives of Comamonadaceae family (relative abundance of 47% in the biofilm). That relative abundance decreased to less than 4% in stages III and IV. However, there was an increase in relative abundance of representatives of the Rhodocyclaceae family (18%, 88% and 77% of the biofilm in stages II, III and IV, respectively). The main genus of Comamonadaceae family identified in stage II was Curvibacter whose growth may be associated with sugars (relative abundance of 28% in the biofilm). That relative abundance was decreased to less than 0.9% in stages III and IV. For representatives of Rhodocyclaceae family, some genera possibly related to the degradation of LAS were identified: Dechloromonas, Georgfuchsia and Zoogloea (78%, 67% and 98% of the genera of the Rhodocyclaceae family identified in the biofilm from stages II, III and IV, respectively). By means of massive sequencing, 37 genera possibly related to degradation of LAS were identified. Forty xenobiotic compounds, some of them toxic to aquatic biota, were detected in the reactor effluent through gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry. According to the Bray-Curtis similarity, the samples collected in the same operation stage showed higher similarity coefficients than those collected in the same sampling site (biofilm from support material or phase separator). That result confirms the microbial community differentiation according to the carbon source employed. Through the overall mass balance, it was found that only 0.81% of LAS added was removed by adsorption.

A remoção do surfactante Alquilbenzeno Linear Sulfonado (LAS) de água residuária de lavanderia comercial foi estudada em EGSB (Expanded granular sludge bed). Essa água residuária foi diluída em esgoto sanitário. O volume útil do reator era de 1,8 L. Toda a operação ocorreu em condições mesofílicas, para TDH (tempo de detenção hidráulica) de 36 horas, velocidade ascensional de 4 m/h e vazão de recirculação de 8,5 L/h. A água residuária de lavanderia era diluída até que se atingisse aproximadamente 20 mg/L de LAS na alimentação do reator. O sistema foi operado em três fases. Na primeira fase de operação usou-se água de abastecimento para diluir a água residuária de lavanderia; na segunda fase utilizou-se uma mistura de água de abastecimento e esgoto sanitário para diluição da água residuária de lavanderia, sendo que 50 % da composição era esgoto sanitário; e, por fim, na última fase de operação utilizou-se apenas esgoto sanitário como diluente da água residuária. Na primeira fase foi necessária adição de bicarbonato de sódio como agente tamponante. Em todas as fases aplicou-se DQO (demanda química de oxigênio) e LAS afluente de 341 ± 216 mg/L e 18,8 ± 7,3 mg/L, respectivamente. A adição do esgoto sanitário afetou a remoção do surfactante, o que na fase inicial (Fase I) representou 77,2 ± 14,9 % e na fase final (Fase III) passou a ser 55,3 ± 18,4 % de remoção de LAS. No entanto, ao passo que a remoção de LAS diminuiu, a remoção de DQO aumentou de 57 ± 16 % para 65 ± 10 %, respectivamente, para a Fase I e Fase III. Além disso, devido a adição de esgoto sanitário verificou-se aumento do tamanho dos grânulos, de 3,67 ± 1,83 mm (Fase I) para 4,97 ± 1,99 mm (Fase II); e também da concentração de sólidos totais no reator, de 5,79 g/L (Etapa I) para 9,50 g/L (Fase III). Por meio do balanço de massa de LAS verificou-se remoção de 69 % de LAS, sendo que 67 % foram removidos por degradação e 2 % por adsorção do mesmo na biomassa. Por fim, por meio das análises por CG/EM (Cromatografia gasosa acoplada a espectrometria de massas) observou-se 17 substâncias no afluente e apenas 4 no efluente, tais como, mercaptanas, hidrocarbonetos, aminas e amidas. A maioria delas são tóxicas aos organismos aquáticos e estão presentes em produtos de limpeza e higiene pessoal. / The removal of the surfactant Linear Alkylbenzene Sulfonate (LAS) of wastewater of a commercial laundry was studied in an EGSB (Expanded granular sludge bed). This wastewater was diluted in sewage. The useful volume of the reactor was of 1,8 L. The whole operation occurred on mesophilic conditions, to HRT (Hydraulic Retention Time) was 36 hours, the upflow speed of 4 m/h and recirculation flow of 8,5 L/h. The laundry waste water was diluted until achieve 20 mg/L of LAS on the reactor feed. The system was operated in three stages. In the first operation stage water supply was used to dilute the wastewater laundry; in the second stage used a mixture of water supply and sewage for dilution of wastewater laundry and 50 % of the composition was sewage; and finally, in the last stage of operation is only used sewage as a diluent of wastewater. In the first stage was required addition of sodium bicarbonate as buffering agent. All the stages was applied COD (Chemical oxygen demand) and LAS influent 341 ± 216 mg/L and 18,8 ± 7,3 mg/L, respectively. The addition of sewage affected the surfactant removal, which on the first stage (Stage I) represented 77,2 ± 14,9 % and on the final stage (Stage III) became 55,3 ± 18,4 % of LAS removal. However, while removing of LAS decreased the COD removal increased from 57 ± 16 % to 65 ± 10 %, respectively, to Stage I and Stage III . Furthermore, due to the addition of sewage was checked an increased on the size of the grain from 3,67 ± 1,83 mm (Stage I) to 4,97 ± 1,99 mm (Stage II); and also the concentration of total solids into the reactor, from 5,79 g/L (Stage I) to 9,50 g/L (Stage III). By mass balance LAS was found a remove of 69 % of LAS, wherein 67 % were removed by degradation and 2 % by adsorption of the surfactant in the biomass. Finally, through analysis by GC/MS (gas chromatograph/mass spectrometry) 17 substances were observed in the influent and only 4 in the effluent, such as, mercaptans, hydrocarbons, amines and amides. Most of them are toxic to aquatic organisms and are present in cleaning products and personal hygiene.

The intercalation of surfactant anions, namely sodium dodecyl sulphate, sodium benzene sulphonate and lauric acid, into commercial layered double hydroxides (LDH-CO3) with approximate composition [Mg0.654AI0.346 (OH)2](CO3)0.173.0.5H2O] was explored. LDH-CO3 is commercially available in bulk form owing to its large scale applications as a PVC stabiliser and acid scavenger in polyolefins. It is therefore of interest to investigate intercalation methods using LDH-CO3 as starting material. The intercalation method used was compared with the pre existing procedures, for instance the co-precipitation, ion exchange and regeneration methods. Due to the tenacity with which the carbonate ion is held in LDH-CO3, direct ion exchange is an intricate matter. Hence, in the regeneration method the carbonate ion is removed by thermal treatment and the LDH-surfactant is obtained by reaction of the LDH and surfactant in an aqueous medium. Nevertheless, the resulting products are impure and poorly crystallised, and only partial intercalation is achieved. The underlying principle of the current method is protonation of the carbonate anion to a monovalent anion that is easily exchanged with surfactant anions. Improved results were obtained when water-soluble organic acids were used, the most suitable being lower aliphatic carboxylic acids, e.g. acetic, butyric and hexanoic acid. In contrast, higher linear aliphatic carboxylic acids are preferentially intercalated to the anionic surfactants. In both cases the carboxylic acids are assumed to assist intercalation by facilitating the elimination of the carbonate ions present in the anionic clay galleries. X-ray diffraction analysis, thermal analysis and infrared spectroscopy confirmed the monolayer intercalation of LDH-dodecyl sulphate and LDH-dodecylbenzene sulphonate. In contrast, LDH-laurate featured a bilayer structure. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Chemistry / unrestricted