Introdução - A malária é uma das principais doenças humanas do mundo e afeta principalmente as populações pobres em regiões tropicais e subtropicais onde as condições ambientais são favoráveis tanto para a proliferação dos agentes etiológicos como dos mosquitos vetores. No Brasil, An. darlingi é considerado vetor primário de plasmódios humanos. Devido à importância médica, esse inseto tem sido objeto de campanhas de controle populacional. No entanto, não foi considerada a ocorrência de microevolução em An. darlingi e consequentemente, a possibilidade de populações diferentes apresentarem características biológicas distintas. Objetivo Verificar a presença de variabilidade genética e morfológica em populações de An. darlingi no Brasil. Metodologia - Foram analisados e comparados 26 atributos da morfologia externa de ovos de nove populações, bem como a morfometria geométrica da forma alar de espécimes de 10 localidades diferentes de Anopheles darlingi. Além disso, foram empregadas sequências do gene mitocondrial citocromo oxidase subunidade I (COI) para analisar a estrutura populacional de An. darlingi. Resultados e Conclusão Apesar dos atributos dos ovos apresentarem variação, somente as amostras de Tocantins e Pará foram diferenciadas das demais populações. As variações nas estruturas externas dos ovos são provavelmente adaptativas, com influência de fatores ambientais, como temperatura, umidade e disponibilidade de alimento para as fêmeas. A comparação da morfometria geométrica da asa demonstrou que existe maior similaridade entre as populações da costa (estados do Espírito Santo , do cerrado (estados de Goiás e Tocantins), do norte do rio Amazonas (estados do Amazonas e Amapá), e do sul do rio Amazonas (estados de Mato Grosso e Pará). As análises de COI demonstraram diferenciação das populações da costa da Mata Atlântica em relação às demais populações do Brasil central, Amazônia e Mata Atlântica do Interior. O padrão da diversidade de haplótipos de COI, os testes de neutralidade e a distribuição de diferenças pareadas indicaram recente expansão demográfica. A distância geográfica, as ecorregiões e fatores ambietais podem provavelmente limitar a dispersão da espécie, tendo alguma influência sobre a estrutura populacional de An. darlingi / Introduction Malaria is a major human disease that primarily affects poor persons in tropical and subtropical regions where environmental conditions are favorable to the proliferation of the etiological agent as well as vector mosquitoes. In Brazil, Anopheles darlingi is considered a primary vector of human plasmodia and has been the target of control campaigns because of its medical importance. However, the occurrence of microevolution in An. darlingi was not considered and, consequently, the possibility of different populations exhibit distinct biological characteristics. Objective Verify the presence of morphological and genetic variability in Brazilian Anopheles darlingi populations. Methods Twenty six attributes of external egg morphology were analyzed and compared in nine populations. Similarly, the geometric morphometry of wing shape was evaluated in ten An. darlingi localities. In addition, the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) was employed to analyze the population structure of An. darlingi. Results and Conclusion - Although, egg attributes showed variation, only samples from Tocantins and Pará were differentiated from other populations. Variation in external egg structure is arguably adaptive in light of environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and food availability for females. Comparisons of wing geometric morphometry indicated that there is greater similarity between Coastal (Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro states) and Inner (São Paulo and Paraná states) populations of the Atlantic Forest, and differentiation of those from (Goiás and Tocantins states) and regions both north (Amazonas and Amapá states) and south (Pará and Mato Grosso states) of the Amazon Region. Cytochrome oxidase I analyses indicated differentiation between coastal Atlantic Forest populations (Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro states) and those from the cerrado, the Amazon and the interior Atlantic Forest. The pattern of COI haplotype diversity, neutrality tests and distribution of pairwise differences suggest a recent demographic expansion. Geographical distance, ecoregions and potentially environmental constraints may limit the species´ dispersal and influence the population structure of An. darlingi

Introdução - A malária é uma das principais doenças humanas do mundo e afeta principalmente as populações pobres em regiões tropicais e subtropicais onde as condições ambientais são favoráveis tanto para a proliferação dos agentes etiológicos como dos mosquitos vetores. No Brasil, An. darlingi é considerado vetor primário de plasmódios humanos. Devido à importância médica, esse inseto tem sido objeto de campanhas de controle populacional. No entanto, não foi considerada a ocorrência de microevolução em An. darlingi e consequentemente, a possibilidade de populações diferentes apresentarem características biológicas distintas. Objetivo Verificar a presença de variabilidade genética e morfológica em populações de An. darlingi no Brasil. Metodologia - Foram analisados e comparados 26 atributos da morfologia externa de ovos de nove populações, bem como a morfometria geométrica da forma alar de espécimes de 10 localidades diferentes de Anopheles darlingi. Além disso, foram empregadas sequências do gene mitocondrial citocromo oxidase subunidade I (COI) para analisar a estrutura populacional de An. darlingi. Resultados e Conclusão Apesar dos atributos dos ovos apresentarem variação, somente as amostras de Tocantins e Pará foram diferenciadas das demais populações. As variações nas estruturas externas dos ovos são provavelmente adaptativas, com influência de fatores ambientais, como temperatura, umidade e disponibilidade de alimento para as fêmeas. A comparação da morfometria geométrica da asa demonstrou que existe maior similaridade entre as populações da costa (estados do Espírito Santo , do cerrado (estados de Goiás e Tocantins), do norte do rio Amazonas (estados do Amazonas e Amapá), e do sul do rio Amazonas (estados de Mato Grosso e Pará). As análises de COI demonstraram diferenciação das populações da costa da Mata Atlântica em relação às demais populações do Brasil central, Amazônia e Mata Atlântica do Interior. O padrão da diversidade de haplótipos de COI, os testes de neutralidade e a distribuição de diferenças pareadas indicaram recente expansão demográfica. A distância geográfica, as ecorregiões e fatores ambietais podem provavelmente limitar a dispersão da espécie, tendo alguma influência sobre a estrutura populacional de An. darlingi / Introduction Malaria is a major human disease that primarily affects poor persons in tropical and subtropical regions where environmental conditions are favorable to the proliferation of the etiological agent as well as vector mosquitoes. In Brazil, Anopheles darlingi is considered a primary vector of human plasmodia and has been the target of control campaigns because of its medical importance. However, the occurrence of microevolution in An. darlingi was not considered and, consequently, the possibility of different populations exhibit distinct biological characteristics. Objective Verify the presence of morphological and genetic variability in Brazilian Anopheles darlingi populations. Methods Twenty six attributes of external egg morphology were analyzed and compared in nine populations. Similarly, the geometric morphometry of wing shape was evaluated in ten An. darlingi localities. In addition, the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) was employed to analyze the population structure of An. darlingi. Results and Conclusion - Although, egg attributes showed variation, only samples from Tocantins and Pará were differentiated from other populations. Variation in external egg structure is arguably adaptive in light of environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and food availability for females. Comparisons of wing geometric morphometry indicated that there is greater similarity between Coastal (Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro states) and Inner (São Paulo and Paraná states) populations of the Atlantic Forest, and differentiation of those from (Goiás and Tocantins states) and regions both north (Amazonas and Amapá states) and south (Pará and Mato Grosso states) of the Amazon Region. Cytochrome oxidase I analyses indicated differentiation between coastal Atlantic Forest populations (Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro states) and those from the cerrado, the Amazon and the interior Atlantic Forest. The pattern of COI haplotype diversity, neutrality tests and distribution of pairwise differences suggest a recent demographic expansion. Geographical distance, ecoregions and potentially environmental constraints may limit the species´ dispersal and influence the population structure of An. darlingi

Notre étude s’est proposée d’analyser l’incidence du paludisme et son évolution dans le temps et dans l’espace, ainsi que de rechercher les facteurs de risque d’accès palustres chez les enfants d’un village du Moyen-Oyapock (Camopi), peuplé d’Amérindiens wayampi et émerillon, d’une part, et d’un village du Haut-Maroni (Antecume Pata), peuplé d’Amérindiens wayana, d’autre part. L’approche a été multiple avec, pour chacun des deux sites d’étude :- Une analyse de survie (modèle de Cox) à partir des accès palustres confirmés biologiquement dans une cohorte d’enfants de moins de sept ans régulièrement suivis, ainsi qu’un questionnaire de type Connaissances, Attitudes et Pratiques (CAP), puis les caractéristiques des habitats et la description de leur environnement immédiat.- Une analyse spatiale avec une classification de l’occupation du sol à partir d’images satellites SPOT 5, l’extraction de variables environnementales d’intérêt, l’étude de leur effet sur la transmission du paludisme et la mise au point d’une méthode objective de sélection d’un rayon d’observation autour des habitations pour la caractérisation de l’environnement.- Une étude de séries temporelles (ARIMA) afin de déterminer l’effet des évènements climatiques et hydrologiques sur le paludisme, aux niveaux local et plus global (El Niño).Les taux d’incidence d’accès palustres sur la période 2001-2009 se sont révélés particulièrement élevés chez les jeunes enfants, notamment à Camopi avec une moyenne de 773‰ par année. Une diminution brutale de l’incidence a eue lieu en 2007 sur le Haut-Maroni et ce phénomène est observé à Camopi depuis 2010. Une prémunition se développe assez rapidement au cours de la vie (2-3 ans), surtout contre les reviviscences à Plasmodium vivax. Les facteurs environnementaux se sont avérés être les plus nombreux et les plus fortement liés à l’incidence palustre. En effet, le dégagement des alentours du carbet de toute végétation et une certaine distance de celui-ci à la forêt sont des facteurs protecteurs. La composante géographique est également apparue essentielle à Camopi avec une incidence qui variait selon le fleuve d’habitation et en fonction de la distance au hameau principal. Les facteurs météorologiques locaux (température et niveau du fleuve) se sont également révélés être liés à l’incidence du paludisme à court terme (0-3 mois). Par ailleurs, nos résultats ont permis d’émettre un certain nombre d’hypothèses quant à la transmission et au(x) vecteur(s) local(ux), et notamment de suggérer la participation d’un vecteur autre qu’An. darlingi dans la transmission du paludisme à Camopi. Nous avons également prouvé par ce travail que la télédétection et les systèmes d’information géographique sont très prometteurs pour la prise en compte de la dimension spatiale et environnementale dans l’étude des maladies transmissibles, notamment dans les zones d’accès difficile de Guyane. / The aim of our study was to analyze the incidence of malaria in children and its evolution through time and space, as well as to search for risk factors in a village in Mid-Oyapock (Camopi), populated by Amerindians Wayampi and Emerillon, on the one hand, and a village in Upper-Maroni (Antecume Pata), populated by Amerindians Wayana, on the other hand. The approach was multiple with, for both study sites:- A survival analysis (Cox modelling) completed out of biologically confirmed malaria attacks in a cohort of children under seven, as well as a Knowledge, Attitudes, Practices and Behavior (KAPB) questionnaire, and also the characteristics of the houses and the description of their immediate environment.- A spatial analysis with a land cover classification from SPOT 5 satellite images, the extraction of environmental variables, the study of their effect on malaria transmission and the development of an objective method for picking the proper observation horizon around houses in order to characterize the environment.- A time series study (ARIMA) to determine the effect of climatic and hydrological events on malaria at local and global (El Niño) scales.The incidence rates of malaria attacks during the period 2001-2009 were particularly high among young children, especially in Camopi with an average of 773‰ by year. A sharp decline in incidence occurred in 2007 on the Upper Maroni and this phenomenon has been observed in Camopi since 2010. An acquired immunity develops quite rapidly during the life (2-3 years old), especially against P. vivax relapses. Environmental factors were found to be the most strongly associated with malaria incidence. Indeed, living in a hut cleared from the surrounding vegetation and at a larger distance from the forest are protective factors. The geographic component also appeared essential in Camopi with an incidence which varied with the river of living and with the distance from the main hamlet. The local meteorological factors (temperature and river level) also proved to be linked to malaria incidence in the short term (0-3 months). Moreover, our results have allowed issuing a number of assumptions about the transmission and the local vector(s), in particular to suggest the involvement of another vector than An. darlingi in the malaria transmission in Camopi. We also proved by this work that remote sensing and geographic information systems hold great promise for the inclusion of the spatial and environmental dimensions in the study of transmitted diseases, especially in areas of difficult access in French Guiana.