BACKGROUND¡GWork plays an important role in everyone¡¦s health and happiness. However, facing the rapidly changing medical environment, physicians feel even more stress than ever. PURPOSE¡GThe purpose of this study was to find the current stressors among physicians who worked in hospitals in southern Taiwan, and to evaluate the correlations among demographics, type A behavior pattern(TABP) and the perception and approach-avoidance intention (AAI) of the stressors. METHOD: Structured questionnaires were mailed to physicians who worked in hospitals in Ping tong and Kaohsiung. Data were coded and analyzed with factor analyses, £q2 test, Pearson¡¦s correlation, partial correlation, Student t test, ANOVA and multiple regression when appropriate. RESULTS: The effective response rate was 7.9% and there was no true difference between the samples and population in demographic characteristics. Six factors were extracted from stressors by factor analyses with the cumulative percentage of total variance explained around 64.7%. The overall Cronbach¡¦s £\ was .917. The extent of stress perception and the AAI of the factors of stressors, namely ¡§patient management (PM)¡¨, ¡¨interpersonal relationship (IR)¡¨, ¡¨work load (WL)¡¨, ¡¨medical environment (ME)¡¨, ¡¨organizational structure (OS) and ¡§research and teaching (RT)¡¨, were used as dependent variables during comparisons between different demographic variables and TABP. The mean TABP score was 4.47, mean perceived stress was 3.13 and the mean AAI of the stressors was 3.5. The most stressful factor of stressors was PM and the least was IR. The AAI of the factor of the stressors revealed that RT was most likely to use approach as the coping strategy whereas the OS was the least. The correlation between the extent of the stress perception and AAI of the stressors varied. Significant correlation was found only in moderate stress zone. TABP significantly correlated to stress perception with Pearson¡¦s r = .227 ( P < .05 ). There was significant difference in overall stress perception on TABP and the position of the physicians. Physicians with TABP perceived more stress than Type B did. Residents were more likely to report their job as stressful than attending physicians did. However, the correlation between TABP and the AAI of the stressors (overall and all 6 factors) were not significant. The attribute of the hospital was the only factor that has the moderator effect on AAI of the stressors. Physicians who worked in public hospitals use approach as the coping strategy to the stressors more likely than physicians who worked in private hospitals did. The correlation between the stress perception and AAI to the factors of the stressors, and the moderator effect of physicians demographics and TABP on stress perception and AAI to the factors of the stressors will be discussed in detail in the text.

The present research tested whether and how regulatory focus as a motivational variable influences the ways in which people appraise, process, and react to events in romantic relationships. Regulatory focus theory distinguishes between (1) a prevention focus, which emphasizes the fulfillment of security needs, duties and obligations, and is associated with heightened sensitivity to aversive outcomes, and (2) a promotion focus, which emphasizes the fulfillment of nurturance needs, accomplishments and aspirations, and is associated with heightened sensitivity to rewarding outcomes. Based on regulatory focus theory, it was assumed that promotion and prevention focused people would appraise, react to, and process interpersonal events involving a romantic partner in different ways. In addition, it was expected that the distinct ways of experiencing such events are reflected in differences in relationship quality. Three studies using college student samples were conducted to test these notions. Evidence was found that individual differences in chronic prevention focus affect the ways in which people react to aversive events in relationships. No support was obtained for regulatory focus theory??s predictions regarding prevention focus processes in association with rewarding outcomes, and predictions related to the promotion focus system were also not supported. As expected, chronic promotion focus was related to higher relationship quality, and chronic prevention focus was associated with lower relationship quality. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Repeated administration of psychostimulant drugs induces a long-term state of sensitization in the mesolimbic dopamine system. This hyperdopaminergic state is associated with enhanced reward-seeking behaviors. Such aberration of incentive motivational processing is suggested to facilitate the initiation and maintenance of compulsive drug-taking behaviors. A defining characteristic of addiction is the persistence to pursue drug reinforcement despite negative consequences associated with administration. Thus, it is likely that addicts frequently experience states of motivational conflict to both seek and avoid the drug. The present study investigated the effects of repeated cocaine exposure on goal-seeking behaviors in rats, utilizing conflict paradigms wherein positive and negative incentive motivations were simultaneously evoked. Here it was shown that cocaine-experienced rats displayed both enhanced approach and avoidance behaviors, depending upon the conditions put forth in each paradigm. The results contribute to elucidating the consequences of drug administration upon basic motivational processes that may influence compulsive drug-taking behaviors.

Repeated administration of psychostimulant drugs induces a long-term state of sensitization in the mesolimbic dopamine system. This hyperdopaminergic state is associated with enhanced reward-seeking behaviors. Such aberration of incentive motivational processing is suggested to facilitate the initiation and maintenance of compulsive drug-taking behaviors. A defining characteristic of addiction is the persistence to pursue drug reinforcement despite negative consequences associated with administration. Thus, it is likely that addicts frequently experience states of motivational conflict to both seek and avoid the drug. The present study investigated the effects of repeated cocaine exposure on goal-seeking behaviors in rats, utilizing conflict paradigms wherein positive and negative incentive motivations were simultaneously evoked. Here it was shown that cocaine-experienced rats displayed both enhanced approach and avoidance behaviors, depending upon the conditions put forth in each paradigm. The results contribute to elucidating the consequences of drug administration upon basic motivational processes that may influence compulsive drug-taking behaviors.

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate and understand the effect of a servicescape’s ambient and social conditions on consumers’ Approach/Avoidance behavior in a retail context. More specifically, this thesis investigates the effect of music (ambient stimuli) and employees’ self-disclosure (social stimuli) on consumers’ Approach/Avoidance behavior in a retail store. Paper I comprised two experiments. Experiment 1 investigated the influence of the independent variable No music/Music. Likewise, experiment 2 studied the influence of the independent variable No music/Slow-tempo music/Fast-tempo music. The dependent variables in both experiments were pleasure, arousal, and the resulting Approach/Avoidance behavior. Paper II investigated the influence of the independent variable self-disclosure. The dependent variables were Approach/Avoidance behavior, measured by pleasure, arousal, liking, satisfaction, and reciprocity. The conclusions of this thesis are that both ambient and social stimuli in a servicescape affect consumers’ internal responses, which in turn affect their behavior. Depending on the situation (type of purchase), retail (bank, supermarket, or electronic retail store), and stimuli (ambient or social), the internal and behavioral responses are different. / Populärvetenskaplig sammanfattning Människor påverkas hela tiden av det eller de som är närvarande runt omkring oss när vi ska fatta beslut. Så är även fallet när vi agerar som konsumenter. Speciellt något som benämns butikers upplevelserum (servicescape) har visat sig påverka konsumenter. Upplevelserummet delas in i två dimensioner, fysisk och social. Inom dessa två dimensioner finns en mängd olika påverkansstimuli. Fysiska stimuli är den fysiska miljön så som doft, möblering, skyltar eller musik som spelas i butik.  De sociala stimuli är den sociala miljön så som antal kunder i butiken och deras agerande, antal butikspersonal och deras agerande. Miljöpsykologer har studerat sambandet mellan fysisk miljö och mänskligt beteende under flera decennier. Mehrabian och Russell (1974) presenterade en värdefull teoretisk modell för att visa effekterna av fysisk miljö på människors beteende. Genom en stimuli-organism-respons (S-O-R) paradigm, förklarar modellen att externa miljöstimuli (S) kan generera känslomässiga reaktioner i en individ (O). Dessa känslomässiga reaktioner påverkar i sin tur individens närmande eller undvikande beteende gentemot miljön (R). Även om M-R-modellen inte ursprungligen utvecklats för att studera butikers upplevelserum, har det konstaterats vara lämplig för att förklara effekten av upplevelserummets dimensioner på konsumenternas beteende. Syftet med licentiatuppsatsen är att undersöka och förstå effekterna av stimuli i butikers upplevelserum på konsumenters känslor och beteende. I licentiatuppsatsen undersöks därför två stimuli i upplevelserummet, nämligen fysiska (musik) och sociala (butikpersonalens verbala beteende). Ett flertal vetenskapliga studier angående musiks påverkan på konsumenters känslor och köpbeteende har bevisat att musik påverkar våra känslor gällande framför allt upprymdhet och aktivering, vilket i sin tur påverkar vårt köpbeteende. Dock har flertalet av dessa studier utförts i laboratoriemiljö där försökspersonerna ofta varit studenter. Detta stärker den interna validiteten men försvagar den ekologiska validiteten. För att komma tillrätta med detta problem undersöks i den första studien (Paper I) musiks påverkan på kunders känslor och beteende genom två kvasiexperiment. Första experimentet genomfördes i en elektronikbutik där musik och ingen musik varierades under fyra dagar. Experiment två genomfördes i en dagligvaruhandelsbutik där ingen musik och tempo (lågt, högt) på musiken varierades under tre dagar.  I båda experimenten så tillfrågades kunderna, direkt efter de betalat sina varor, om de kunde fylla i en enkät angående sin butiksupplevelse Resultatet från dessa två experiment visar att musik påverkar vissa delar av kundbeteendet positivt, nämligen köp, kunder köper mer när musik spelas i butik. Dock visar resultatet även på negativa effekter så som lägre grad av glädje, interaktion med andra och upplevelse av köptillfället blir mer negativ när musik spelas i butik. Resultat visar också på att effekterna av musik modereras av kön där kvinnor och män påverkas olika av musik. Det blir allt mer vanligt att butikspersonal interagerar med kunder så som om det var en interaktion mellan vänner och ett generellt säljtips är att säljaren bör agera som en kompis och hitta något gemensamt med kunden för att på så sätt kunna påverka hans eller hennes köpbeteende i önskvärd riktning. I den andra studien (Paper II) undersöks, med hjälp av text baserade scenarier, hur bankpersonals verbala beteende, i form av att delge personlig information, påverkar kundens känslor och beteende. En konceptuell modell med tillhörande hypoteser testades. Modellen beskriver hur kundbeteendet (i detta fall grad av reciprocitet) påverkas av att bankpersonalen delger personlig information och hur detta medieras av dimensionerna gillande, glädje och tillfredställelse. Resultatet av modellen visar att effekten av att ge personlig information för reciprocitet medieras till fullo av dimensionerna gillande, glädje och tillfredställelse. Resultatet från denna studie visar också att det inte är fördelaktigt att delge personlig information om sig själv för att vinna fördelar, då effekten av detta är negativt för graden av gillande, glädje, tillfredställelse och reciprocitet. Slutsatserna av denna licentiatuppsats är dels att både fysiska stimuli (musik) och sociala stimuli (verbal interaktion) i butikens upplevelserum påverkar kunders känslor och beteende. Dock är det viktigt att uppmärksamma att påverkan av olika stimuli genererar olika effekter, som i sin tur påverkas av kön och vilken sorts butik/tjänst som konsumeras.

The current study sought to examine how best to fully represent and measure approach-avoidance motivational orientation using self-reports. Participants responded to a variety of existing, revised, and new scales across the theoretical spectrum of approach-avoidance motivation. Exploratory factor analyses were conducted to identify the items to be retained for evaluating the adequacy of competing confirmatory measurement structures. Overall results supported the validity of the second-order approach-avoidance overarching framework and indicated that the use of items with clear specification of reward/punishment context improves the psychometric properties of approach-avoidance scales. Moreover, the newly developed scales reflecting constructs that represent increasing non-gains via approach and increasing non-losses via avoidance meaningfully expanded the approach-avoidance construct space. It also appeared that the proposed four-dimensional model of approach-avoidance is a viable alternative measurement structure. Finally, the current results suggested that contamination by implied outcomes does not invalidate approach-avoidance scales where reward/punishment context is specified. Implications and recommendations for future research are discussed. / Ph. D.

Elderly consumers are often overlooked in the retail marketplace; however, evidence suggests that the elderly population has a considerable amount of discretionary time and purchase power. Unlike past generations, this consumer group is relatively healthy, active, and demands a wide array of products and services. The purpose of this research was to determine the relationship between store attributes and approach-avoidance behavior of elderly apparel consumers. In addition, this research examined the relationships between age, the importance of store attributes, and shopping orientations of elderly apparel consumers. Data were collected using a convenience sample of persons 65 and older from the southeastern part of the United States. The final sample consisted of 208 subjects. Four hypotheses were formulated. Data were analyzed using frequencies, chi-square, factor analysis, regression, and MANOVA. Results revealed that elderly consumers in this study preferred to shop department stores and mass merchandisers for clothing. These consumers reported that they would spend more time and money in retail stores that offered credit, discounts for those 65 and over, and liberal return policies. Further, the consumers reported they would not return to and would avoid looking around in retail stores without rest areas, with difficult to find items, inferior products, and poor business practices. Regression analyses showed significant relationships between shopping orientations and three of the five attribute factors. MANOVA revealed significant differences between two age groups and the importance placed on quality products, store reputation, and well-known labels/brands. Chi-square analyses showed no significant relationship between age and shopping orientations. / Master of Science

United States post-secondary education continues to see an increase in Hispanic enrollment, particularly those of Mexican heritage. The present study was designed to examine this population’s experience of stress, anxiety and academic approach-avoidance conflict. Data were collected at North Texas postsecondary institutions. Participants (N = 197) completed an online survey including a Picture Story Exercise (PSE), open-ended responses to hypothetical scenarios, and self-report measures. The current study utilized a mixed-method approach integrating content analysis measures and self-reports. Results indicated that anxiety symptoms expressed to academic, familial, and minority social situations differed, partial η2=.39; with the academic scenario including the highest and minority social scenario the lowest anxiety. Results suggested that Mexican-American college students may express cognitive and affective symptoms of anxiety more frequently than physical symptoms on scenarios but not on self-report scales (Personality Assessment Inventory Anxiety; PAI Anxiety). PSE responses suggested that Conflict and Drive for Goal Orientation were frequent among this sample. Academic Total Anxiety and Academic Physical Anxiety related positively to PSE Conflict, while Academic Cognitive Anxiety related negatively to PSE Positive Outcomes. Exploratory models predicting PSE variables from Academic Anxiety and PAI Anxiety were inconclusive but suggested that gender accounted for significant variance in PSE scores.

It is a widely assumed principle that organisms reflexively approach possibilities for pleasure and avoid possibilities for pain. However, highly evolved organisms not only reflexively react to future possibilities of pleasure vs. pain, but also evaluate the chance or risk of actually experiencing such possibilities. Given the import of optimism judgments in shaping behavior and other outcomes, the main goal of the current research was to examine the relationship between the rudimentary systems of approach-avoidance that orient us toward possible outcomes in the environment and the higher-order optimism judgments we make when evaluating whether such outcomes are likely to occur. To this end, two experiments examined the impact of approach-avoidance cues in shaping participants' optimism judgments about experiencing positive and negative future life events. For the primary operationalization of approach-avoidance, college student participants engaged in arm flexion (a motor movement associated with approach) or arm extension (a motor movement associated with avoidance) while simultaneously making optimism judgments about experiencing a range of positive and negative events in the future. A secondary operationalization involved correlations computed between participants' chronic personality tendencies related to approach-avoidance (e.g., positive vs. negative affectivity) and their optimism judgments. The results of these experiments revealed complexities in the relationship between approach-avoidance and optimism, suggesting that when, how and why approach-avoidance cues will shape optimism may critically depend upon 1) the specific operationalization of approach-avoidance, 2) how optimism is measured, and 3) characteristics of the outcomes under consideration. Explanations for the complexities in the results are offered, and attempts are made to link the current work to broader theoretical and practical aspects of the connection between approach-avoidance and optimism.

Ces travaux portent sur les processus à l’œuvre dans la réactivation des tendances comportementales d’approche et d’évitement. Dans cette thèse, nous défendons l’idée que la réactivation de ces tendances comportementales dépend de l’information sensorimotrice présente et de sa similarité avec l’information sensorimotrice passée ayant été associée à des comportements d’approche/évitement. Dans une première partie, nous avons testé si reproduire dans la tâche d’approche/évitement l’information sensorimotrice (en l’occurrence, visuelle) la plus représentative de l’approche/évitement permettait une meilleure réactivation de ces tendances comportementales. A travers huit expériences, nous avons pu montrer que lorsque l’information visuelle de la tâche était représentative, les effets d’approche/évitement étaient plus forts que lorsque cette information visuelle n’était pas présente. Qui plus est, les effets produits lorsque cette information était présente étaient forts et réplicables. Dans les deux parties suivantes, nous avons testé l’hypothèse selon laquelle la réactivation des tendances à l’approche/évitement dépend de spécificités personnelles associées au comportement des individus. A travers sept expériences, nous avons pu montrer que les tendances d’approche/évitement réactivées variaient en fonction de caractéristiques personnelles, théoriquement associées au comportement réel des individus envers des groupes sociaux et envers un produit de consommation. De manière générale, ces travaux sont cohérents avec l’idée que la réactivation des tendances à l’approche/évitement prend sa base sur l’information sensorielle ayant accompagné ces actions passées / This work focuses on the processes underlying approach/avoidance tendencies reactivation. In this thesis, we defend the idea that these tendencies reactivation depends on the present sensorimotor information and its similarity with past sensorimotor information associated with approach/avoidance behaviors. In the first part, we tested if reproducing the most representative sensorimotor (here, visual) approach/avoidance information led to a better reactivation of approach/avoidance tendencies. Through eight experiments, when the visual information displayed in the task was representative of these actions, approach/avoidance effects were stronger than when this visual information was absent. Moreover, the effects we produced (with this visual information in the task) were strong and replicable. In the two next parts, we tested if the reactivation of approach/avoidance tendencies depends on personal characteristics theoretically associated with approach/avoidance behaviors. Through seven experiments, we showed that approach/avoidance tendencies varied as function of these personal characteristics theoretically associated with intergroup behaviors and consumption behaviors. Overall, this work is in line with the idea that approach/avoidance tendencies reactivation rely on sensory information associated with past approach/avoidance actions