This study develops a landscape design, which demonstrates how to change the microclimate in a historical public space (Towers of silence, in city of Yazd, designated as World Heritage Site, in the heart of Iran). The arid historic city of Yazd is getting hotter. The increasing temperatures make it more and more difficult to use the public space. Towers of silence inherited from Zoroastrianism are stone cylindrical structures located on top of the hills within infertile land located south east of the city of Yazd. This historic site brings visitors from around the world every year but the microclimate of the site it is not welcoming. The current layout does not provide information about the rich culture it entailed, and visitors are not able to understand the meaning that is behind these structures. This design aims to improve the current conditions of these magnificent towers and utilize techniques like historical plan analysis, comparative analysis and experimental design study. Using landscape architecture to address the climate issue the proposed design translates Zoroastrian's beliefs to visitors as well as creating a more hospitable environment. / Master of Landscape Architecture / All around the world people must deal with climate change and the effects of extreme weather. City of Yazd in the heart of Iran is not immune to such changes and has traditionally faced a harsh desert like climate. This study focuses on improving the climate surrounding a unique and magnificent historic site in city of Yazd called the Silent Towers (a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site). The design uses material and natural elements that are local to the site (stone, plants and trees) and infuse Zoroastrian and ancient Persian beliefs to bring about a more pleasant conditions (reducing the heat) for the visitors to this site. The outcome of merging tradition and natural elements to mitigate extreme temperatures brings about a layout that is inviting to visitors and hospitable to the local population without changing any of the values or the integrity of the main attraction: The Towers of Silence.

This thesis describes the growth of European olive (Olea europaea L.) at three different trial sites located near Laverton, in the north-eastern Goldfields region of Western Australia. The local region comprises part ofthe rangelands area of Australia and has a semi-arid climate. The initial reason for planting olives was indirectly related to the rapid decrease in the local population and the economic downturn that resulted within that community during the late 1990's. This prompted an investigation into other possibilities for economic diversity for remote communities such as Laverton, which are located in the rangelands area of Australia. In Australia, much of the southern and eastern areas of the country have similar climate to traditional olive growing areas in Europe. [n the rangelands however, the environment is different to most other areas in the world where olive trees are grown and there is a notable absence of a commercial olive industry. Whilst locally, individual trees were also observed to be growing well and fruiting abundantly, it is not known whether it is possible to grow olive trees successfully on a commercial scale. Two preliminary trials were established in an ad-hoc manner, to examine whether olive trees could be grown successfully in the rangelands environment. Eighty-eight trees of 5 different cultivars were planted on a shallow, clay soil profile at the first trial site. Ninety-eight trees of 11 different cultivar were planted on a deep sand soil profile at the second site. Higher mortality rate occurred at the first site, with most tree deaths being recorded in the first two years. Peak growth of branch tips occurred during the spring-summer seasons at both sites. Differences in trial design and timing of planting prevented statistical comparison of growth performance between sites however. / A third olive trial, consisting of 3 olive groves was established according to randomised design. In the north and middle groves, 54 trees of 3 different cultivar were planted on a deep alluvial soil profile. In the south grove, 53 trees of 3 different cultivar were planted on a shallow clay soil profile. High mortality rates were recorded at all 3 groves during the first year, as a result of high salinity levels in irrigation water during the establishment period. Overall, most tree mortality was recorded at the south grove. Significantly higher growth performance occurred within the deeper alluvial soil profile at the north and middle groves, compared to the shallow clay soil profile in the south grove. Negligible olive fruit production occurred at the first site. At the second site, small quantities of olive fruit were produced during some seasons only. No olive fruit production occurred at any grove at the randomized site. Successful fruit formation appears directly related to tree health, as a function of water supply. Ripening of olive fruit occurred earlier than at other more temperate olive growing areas of Australia. Similar major and trace element deficiencies occurred at all sites, interpreted to be a function of universal alkaline ground-water conditions. / This study failed to confirm conclusively, whether European olive could be grown successfully in the semi-arid climate, typical of much of the rangelands area of Australia. As a result of the study however, successful growth in this environment is confirmed to be highly dependent on three factors. Firstly, availability of reliable irrigation waters of sufficient quality. Secondly, choice of suitable soil types. Thirdly, selection of suitable cultivars. Quality of olive oil produced from fruit appears to be influenced by local climatic factors The study also highlighted the issues of land tenure, current management attitudes and level of support within the local community as having a direct and significant impact on the trial.

Water is the most important resource on Earth. Climate and land cover changes are two important factors that directly influenced water resources. This research provides important information for water resources management and contributes on understanding of the responses of water resources to climate and land cover changes in two different climates. The Neches River watershed located in a humid subtropical climate had a 0.7 °C increase in temperature and a 16.3 % increase in precipitation. Developed and crop land covers increased whereas vegetation cover decreased, as a result of human activities. Hydrologic responses to climate and land cover changes resulted in the increases of surface runoff (15.0 %), soil water content (2.7 %), evapotranspiration (20.1 %), and a decrease of groundwater discharge (9.2 %). Surface runoff had an increasing trend with precipitation whereas soil water content was sensitive to changes in land cover, especially human intervention. The Canadian River watershed, a semi-arid watershed, experienced a 0.9 °C increase in temperature and a 10.9 % decrease in precipitation. Land cover was converted from developed and crop lands into barren land and grass covers, as a result of the decrease in human activity. The change of grass and forest covers into bush/shrub cover is thought to be linked to climate change. Surface runoff, groundwater discharge, soil water content, and evapotranspiration were all decreased by 10.2 %, 10.0 %, 7.7 %, and 9.4%, respectively. Hydrologic parameters generally follow similar patterns to that of precipitation. The trend in water resources followed a similar trend of precipitation for the two watersheds with different climates; a humid watershed and a semi-arid watershed. The humid climate watershed, the Neches River watershed, experienced increasing trends in temperature and precipitation. Groundwater discharge was sensitive to changes in land cover caused by human activities. The semi-arid watershed, the Canadian River watershed, had an increase in precipitation and a decrease in precipitation. Conversion of developed and crop land covers into barren and grass land covers was thought to be the result of the decrease in human activity. The volume of soil water was relatively offset by a combination of precipitation changes and land-cover changes.

This thesis aims to discuss the archaeological concerns about how surveys can provide data tht is meaningful to construct spatial patterning and its intricacies for inferences through altering processes diversified as cultural and natural processes. Along with that there is also a second concern dealing with the application of these theoretical issues to practical basis. It consists both methodological limits and also limits governed by the legislation of the particular area according to the aim of the study. A particular space, semi-arid climate is selected for comparing the amount of attrition and accretion caused by natural factors, to be able to apply the studies to Anatolian geography. However applications from around the world are frequently discussed here, these are mainly the case studies bringing methodological scheme for the appropriate data collection.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:49:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 IsabeMSR_DISSERT.pdf: 3941458 bytes, checksum: 4b09d98a0eb4509332c88708ef85f1de (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-08-30 / Edaphic ecosystems are the basis for the production of terrestrial biological resources and their dynamics affect not only the natural environment but also society and their economic activities. In Caatinga biome, the semi-arid climate associated with an inadequate soil management has increased the degradation and loss of productive potential of the soil. In this context, the study of soil fauna, including springtails, becomes an important indicator of soil quality. This study aimed to evaluate the fauna of Collembola in an area of Caatinga of Rio Grande do Norte State and the influence of biotic and abiotic factors, such as soil, vegetation and climate characteristics, on the structure of the taxocenosis. The environmental variables which were used were the following ones: granulometry (represented by the proportion of sand), quantity of organic matter and soil pH, richness, density and aerial biomass of the vegetal structure, and necromass. We used pitfall traps intending to collect specimens of the epiedaphic fauna of Collembola in 30 points located on Caua?u Farm, Jo?o C?mara, RN, in July (rainy season) and November (dry season) 2011. We collected 5513 individuals of 15 species distributed in 13 genera and 9 families of Collembola. Five of the recorded species are new to science, confirming the expected high degree of endemism for Caatinga biome, and the highest abundance was recorded in the rainy season, which suggests Collembola sensitivity to low humidity. Four species were more abundant in the dry season, all of them belonged to the Order Entomobryomorpha. Results of statistical analyzes suggest that plant species richness, aerial biomass of vegetal structure, proportion of sand in the soil, pH and humidity are the main influences to the abundance of Collembola in the region studied / Os ecossistemas ed?ficos s?o base para toda produ??o de recursos biol?gicos terrestres e sua din?mica afeta n?o apenas os ambientes naturais, mas tamb?m a sociedade e suas atividades econ?micas. Na Caatinga, o clima semi?rido associado ao uso inadequado do solo t?m potencializado a degrada??o e a perda do potencial produtivo das terras. Considerando que a fauna ed?fica, incluindo os col?mbolos, ? um importante indicador da qualidade do solo, este trabalho objetivou avaliar a fauna de Collembola numa ?rea de Caatinga do Rio Grande do Norte, verificando a influ?ncia de fatores bi?ticos e abi?ticos, tais como caracter?sticas do solo, da vegeta??o e do clima, sobre a estrutura da taxocenose. As vari?veis ambientais utilizadas foram: granulometria (representada pela propor??o de areia), quantidade de mat?ria org?nica e pH do solo; riqueza, densidade e biomassa a?rea vegetal; e necromassa. Foram utilizadas armadilhas de queda (pitfall) para coletar esp?cimes da fauna epied?fica de Collembola em 30 pontos localizados na Fazenda Caua?u, Jo?o C?mara, RN, nos meses de julho (per?odo chuvoso) e novembro (per?odo seco) de 2011. Foram coletados 5.513 indiv?duos de 15 esp?cies, distribu?das em 13 g?neros e 9 fam?lias de Collembola. Cinco das esp?cies registradas s?o novas para a ci?ncia, confirmando a expectativa de alto grau de endemismo para o bioma, e a maior abund?ncia de indiv?duos foi registrada na esta??o chuvosa, o que sugere sensibilidade dos col?mbolos ? baixa umidade. Quatro esp?cies foram mais abundantes na esta??o seca, todas da Ordem Entomobryomorpha, e os resultados das an?lises estat?sticas sugerem que a riqueza de plantas, a biomassa vegetal a?rea, a propor??o de areia no solo, o pH e a umidade devida ?s chuvas sejam os principais influenciadores da abund?ncia de Collembola na regi?o estudada

abstract: Biomimicry is an approach that entails understanding the natural system and designs and mimicking them to create new non-biological systems that can solve human problems. From bio-based material development to biologically inspired designs, architects and designers excelled in highlighting the fascination of integrating the biomimetic thinking process into the modern design that provides more comfortable space in which to live. This thesis explores how historical sustainable strategies from Islamic traditional architecture incorporated natural design system that could now be appropriately applied to interior architecture. In addition, it explores the current existing problems in this field and the possibilities of biomimetic sustainable solutions for existing buildings in the hot dry climate regions of Saudi Arabia. The author concentrates on examining Islamic traditional architecture where the past architects incorporated certain aspects of nature in their construction and through using local resources, built buildings that mitigated heat and provided protection from cold. As a result of completing this research, it was found that there are common characteristics between the traditional Islamic architecture elements and system solutions found in some natural organisms. Characteristics included, for example, evaporative cooling, stuck effect, and avoiding heat gain. However, in the natural world, there is always opportunities to further explore more about the impacts of biomimicry and natural strategies applicable to enhance interior environments of buildings. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Design 2016

abstract: Context – Urbanization can have negative effects on bat habitat use through the loss and isolation of habitat even for volant bats. Yet, how bats respond to the changing landscape composition and configuration of urban environments remains poorly understood. Objective – This study examines the relationship between bat habitat use and landscape pattern across multiple scales in the Phoenix metropolitan region. My research explores how landscape composition and configuration affects bat activity, foraging activity, and species richness (response variables), and the distinct habitats that they use. Methods – I used a multi-scale landscape approach and acoustic monitoring data to create predictive models that identified the key predictor variables across multiple scales within the study area. I selected three scales with the intent of capturing the landscape, home range, and site scales, which may all be relevant for understanding bat habitat use. Results – Overall, class-level metrics and configuration metrics best explained bat habitat use for bat species associated with this urban setting. The extent and extensiveness of water (corresponding to small water bodies and watercourses) were the most important predictor variables across all response variables. Bat activity was predicted to be high in native vegetation remnants, and low in native vegetation at the city periphery. Foraging activity was predicted to be high in fine-scale land cover heterogeneity. Species richness was predicted to be high in golf courses, and low in commercial areas. Bat habitat use was affected by urban landscape pattern mainly at the landscape and site scale. Conclusions – My results suggested in hot arid urban landscapes water is a limiting factor for bats, even in urban landscapes where the availability of water may be greater than in outlying native desert habitat. Golf courses had the highest species richness, and included the detection of the uncommon pocketed free-tailed bat (Nyctinomops femorosaccus). Water cover types had the second highest species richness. Golf courses may serve as important stop-overs or refuges for rare or elusive bats. Urban waterways and golf courses are novel urban cover types that can serve as compliments to urban preserves, and other green spaces for bat conservation. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Biology 2016

In arid countries both water scarcity and salinity represent the key factors which drastically limit crop yield in irrigated agriculture. In addition, relatively poor management practices with pretty low water productivity (WP) seriously aggravate the situation. In order to get “more crop per drop', i.e., to substantially improve water use efficiency, this thesis proposes the novel strategy NEMO (Nested Experimental, Modeling, and Optimization Strategy) for reliably evaluating an optimal irrigation schedule. The proposed methodology relies upon a close interaction between in-depth field investigations and physically based process modeling. It is tailored specifically to fit the requirements in resource-restricted regions. Comprehensive field experiments, on site measurements as well as various laboratory analyses provide a representative database for characterizing the relevant environmental parameters as e.g. the soil properties at the considered location and the prevailing climate. A substantial part of the data obtained from the field experiments provided the input for the internationally recognized SVAT software DAISY1 or APSIM2, both physically based irrigation models which have already been successfully applied in arid regions. APSIM - which is used in the advanced parts of the study - includes not only a process based model for soil moisture transport but also a plant physiological model which describes the plant behavior under specific irrigation scenarios for a selected crop throughout a growing season. The adaption of the irrigation model to local conditions and its preliminary parameterization firstly follows available guidelines and data for areas with similar climate and soil conditions. Reference data and deterministic weather data served to build up DAISY’s basic model files. DAISY is then used within the framework of the custom made and problem oriented optimization software GET-OPTIS for evaluating the corresponding optimal irrigation schedule for a first preliminary series of experiments (IrrEx1). A second series of field experiments (IrrEx2) was accompanied by transient soil moisture measurements, which served for evaluating the soil hydraulic parameters, while the obtained yield was used for calibrating the plant physiological model of APSIM. Taking still into account the stochastic nature of weather phenomena, a stochastic optimization with GET-OPTIS was then applied not only for the traditional full irrigation but also for the most important deficit irrigation and the irrigation with saline water. The obtained optimal irrigation schedules are subsequently used for a final series of rigorous irrigation experiments (IrrEx3) which specifically focused on: (1) full irrigation for high yields with most economic water application, (2) deficit irrigation aiming at a maximum yield with only a limited amount of irrigation water, and (3) full irrigation with saline irrigation water for maximum yield. At the harvesting time, the observed crop yield and the water productivity were compared - together with other plant characteristics - with the corresponding calculated values. The agreement between calculated and measured crop data was excellent. All the field experiments have been performed following a parallel use of the common traditional FAO class A-Pan method and the novel NEMO technology. Based on the outcome of the field experiments, the NEMO applications demonstrated a striking superiority throughout all scenarios as compared to the FAO method as regards economic efficiency and sustainable use of irrigation water in both aspects water quantity and salt accumulation. Contrary to common practice, the optimal NEMO irrigation schedule - which relies on stochastic weather data - has an extended validity. Together with the use of physical data and adequate process models, the developed methodology features a highly promising potential for generalizing the experimental findings for other, environmentally similar, regions. NEMO thus opens wide possibilities for a cost effective and sustainable long-term application to other arid or semi-arid areas.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Soils of semi-arid regions generally have low organic matter contents, primarily attributed to prevailing climatic conditions. Yet, the spekboom thicket, located in the semi-arid region of the Eastern Cape (South Africa) has been distinguished to accumulate large amounts of soil carbon. To further understand this remarkable accumulation, a detailed investigation was carried out to evaluate the distribution, speciation and stability of the soil carbon from directly beneath spekboom (Portulacaria afra) and other “nonspekboom” vegetation within the intact thicket, and from adjacent, degraded (overgrazed), open thicket sites. In the first experimental chapter, the distribution of organic and inorganic C, as well as general soil properties (pH, EC, exchangeable and water soluble cations, hydrophobicity, water stable aggregates) were investigated in the intact (spekboom and nonspekboom) and degraded (open) thicket soils. There were no significant differences in the C content (organic or inorganic) between the spekboom and nonspekboom sites in the intact thicket. Soil organic carbon (SOC) content however was greatly influenced by thicket degradation, whereas, inorganic C remained unaffected. Mean organic C (0-50 cm) ranged from 19-34, 22-62, and 19-58 g C kg-1 for open, spekboom, and nonspekboom sites, respectively. Whereas, mean inorganic C ranged from 2-9 g C kg-1 irrespective of sites, representing 4-22 % of total soil C. However, no significant differences were detected between degraded and intact sites for all (total, organic and inorganic) C stocks, attributed to variation in bulk density. Spekboom soils contained significantly higher concentrations of exchangeable and water soluble Mg, Na, and K, and consequently had higher pH and EC compared to the other sites. Soils tended to be hydrophobic especially at shallower depths in the intact thicket irrespective of vegetation type, whereas soils from the adjacent open sites were not significantly hydrophobic. Macro-aggregates were considerably more stable under intact sites compared to open sites. The second experimental chapter investigated the effects of degradation and vegetation type on the stability and structural chemistry of SOC. This involved partitioning the soil organic matter into particulate and mineral-bound (stable) fractions, and then examining the relationships between the stable organic C fraction and various soil properties as an attempt to elucidate the stabilization mechanism(s). Particulate organic C ranged from 7.0, 9.3, and 14.4 g C kg-1 for open, spekboom, and nonspekboom respectively; representing 22-34 % of total SOC. Stable (mineral-bound) organic C accounted for the largest fraction ca. 60-66 % of total SOC; 28.0 and 26.2 g C kg-1 for spekboom and non-spekboom respectively, versus 17.2 g C kg-1 for open sites. It was concluded that SOC stability was influenced by the inherent residue quality (recalcitrance) rather than soil properties, attributed to the aliphatic (lipids and waxes) and highly aromatic nature of the spekboom litter substrate and particulate OM. These research findings are of fundamental significance in understanding soil organic matter stabilization in semi-arid environments. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gronde van semi–ariede streke het oor die algemeen 'n lae organiese materiaalinhoud, wat hoofsaaklik aan die heersende klimaatstoestande toegeskryf kan word. Tog, het die spekboomruigtes, geleë in die semi-ariede streek van die Oos-Kaap (Suid Afrika), onderskeidelik groot hoeveelhede grondkoolstof geakkumuleer. Om hierdie merkwaardige akkumulasie verder te verstaan, was 'n gedetailleerde ondersoek uitgevoer om die verspreiding, spesiasie en stabiliteit van die grondkoolstof direk onder spekboom (Portulacaria afra) en ander “nie-spekboom” plantegroei binne die intakte ruigte en van die aangrensende gedegradeer (oorbeweide), oop gras areas te evalueer. In die eerste eksperimentele hoofstuk, is die verspreiding van organiese en anorganiese C, sowel as algemene grondeienskappe (pH, uitruilbare en wateroplosbare katione, hidrofobisiteit, water-stabiele aggregate) was in die intakte (spekboom en nie-spekboom) en degradeerde (oop) ruigtes ondersoek. Daar was geen betekenisvolle verskille in die C-inhoud (organies of anorganies) tussen die spekboom en nie-spekboom gronde in die intakte ruigtes gevind nie. Grond organiese koolstof (GOK) inhoud is grootliks deur die ruigte se agteruitgang beïnvloed, maar anorganiese C-voorrade was egter nie beïnvloed nie. Die gemiddelde organiese C-inhoud (0-50 cm) het van 19-34, 22-62 en 19-58 g C kg-1 onderskeidelik vir 'n oop, spekboom, en nie-spekboom areas gewissel. Die anorganiese C-inhoude het vanaf 2-9 g C kg-1 gewissel, ongeag van ligging, wat 4-22 % van die totale grond C uit maak. Daar is egter geen beduidende verskille tussen vervalle en heel terreine vir almal (totaal, organiese en anorganiese) C aandele opgespoor, toegeskryf word aan die variasie in die massadigtheid. Spekboom gronde het beduidende hoër konsentrasies van uitruilbare en wateroplosbare Mg, Na, en K waardes bevat. Dit het ook hoër pH en EC, in vergelyking met die ander areas gehad. Gronde was geneig om hidrofobies te wees, veral op vlakker dieptes in die intakte ruigte, ongeag van die plantegroei, terwyl die gronde van die aangrensende oop areas nie beduidend hidrofobies was nie. Makro grond aggregate was aansienlik meer stabiel onder intakte ruigtes as in die oop areas. Die tweede eksperimentele hoofstuk het die gevolge van die weiding-geïnduseerde degradasie en tipe plantegroei op die stabiliteit en strukturele chemie van GOK ondersoek. Dit het die skeiding van die grond organiese materiaal in die vrye en mineraalgebonde (stabiele) fraksies behels. Daarna is die verhoudings tussen die stabiele organiese C fraksie en verskeie grondeienskappe ondersoek om die stabiliseringmeganisme(s) uit te lig. Die chemiese aard van die blare, plante oorblyfsels, fyn en minerale gebinde organiese C is met behulp van spektroskopie ondersoek. Vrye organiese C voorraad het van 7.0, 9.3, en 14.4 g C kg-1 vir oop, spekboom, en nie-spekboom onderskeidelik gewissel, wat ongeveer 23-34% van die totale GOK verteenwoordig. Stabiele (minerale gebind) organiese C-voorrade is vir die grootste fraksie ca. 60-66% van die totale GOK verantwoordelik. Dit was 28.0 en 26.2 g C kg-1 onderskeidelik vir spekboom en nie-spekboom, teenoor 17.2 g C kg-1 vir 'n oop area. Die mineraalgebonde GOK het geen noemenswaardige korrelasies met die ondersoekte grondeienskappe getoon nie. Dus is tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat GOK stabilisering eerder deur die plante oorblyfsel se chemiese kwaliteit beïnvloed word. Strukturele chemiese karakterisering (13C CP-MAS KMR) van die spekboom afval en vrye C fraksie het gewys dat weerspannigheid die mees prominente meganisme van koolstof stabilisering van organiese koolstof in die gronde is. Dit word aan die alifatiese (lipiede en wasse) en sterk aromatiese aard van die spekboom substrate toegeskryf. Hierdie ondersoek het tot die fundamentele kennis van grond organiese materiaalstabilisering in 'n semi-ariede omgewings bygedra.

The westernmost spur of the Tibetan Plateau stretches to Eastern Ladakh in India. It is a region which remains poorly explored because of challenging conditions and long periods of political instability. At the same time, it is one of the highest places on earth supporting angiosperm life, which goes beyond 6000 m a.s.l. here. The whole region, due its remoteness, is practically unaffected by plant invasions and direct human activities. Thus, Ladakh represents a kind of "natural experiment", providing very long gradient of elevation suitable for comparative functional ecology as well as for testing various hypotheses concerning limitations of vascular plants. Arid climate and extreme elevations are the common factors. Our team pursued the goal of systematic botanical and ecological exploration of Ladakh, started by late Leoš Klimeš. This thesis provides insight into the main vegetation types, clonality in plants, plant-plant interactions and soil phototroph communities.