京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第20398号 / 工博第4335号 / 新制||工||1672(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科分子工学専攻 / (主査)教授 関 修平, 教授 今堀 博, 准教授 伊藤 彰浩, 教授 白川 昌宏 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM

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Os corantes que apresentam grupos cromóforos do tipo azo (N=N) são amplamente empregados em numerosas aplicações na indústria, para colorir vários bens de consumo, dentre eles os têxteis. Entretanto, pelo fato de formarem aminas aromáticas carcinogênicas, quando a ligação N=N é rompida, seu uso está sujeito à legislação. Levando em consideração o potencial carcinogênico das aminas aromáticas, a quantificação das mesmas em produtos destinados à exportação se faz necessária. A técnica padrão para o monitoramento da presença dessas aminas em bens de consumo como os têxteis é a cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência, entretanto como alternativa tem-se a eletroforese capilar. Assim, neste trabalho 20 aminas aromáticas oriundas de azo corantes, banidas pela Comunidade Européia por meio da Diretiva 2002/61/EC, foram separadas por meio de eletroforese capilar (CE), com detecção no UV-Vis, e, a confirmação da presença dessas aminas em matrizes têxteis foi realizada por um método confirmatório de LC-MS, adaptado da literatura. Em CE o conhecimento das constantes de dissociação ácido-base se faz necessário para a otimização do pH ideal de corrida, assim estas, bem como mobilidades iônicas para cada uma das aminas aromáticas foram determinadas por meio de curvas de mobilidade efetiva em função do pH. O pH ótimo de separação de 2,50 foi determinado por meio do simulador de separação desenvolvido no grupo (SIMLACE). Dos métodos de separação estudados, o que apresentou maior número de aminas separadas (16 aminas) em linha de base em menor tempo (12 min) foi empregando um BGE composto apenas de 70 mmol/L de dihidrogenofosfato de sódio ajustado a pH 2,50 com ácido fosfórico, considerando um condicionamento de capilar de início de trabalho de 10 minutos de flush com BGE (dihidrogenofosfato de sódio 70 mmol/L ajustado a pH 2,50 com ácido fosfórico, contendo trietilamina 12,3 mmol/L) a uma pressão de 950 mbar, seguido da aplicação de uma tensão de +30 kV por 10 minutos; e um condicionamento entre réplicas de corrida eletroforética de 1 minuto de HCl 0,1mol/L (950 mbar) seguidos de 1 minuto de H2O (950 mbar). A extração das aminas da matriz têxtil envolve três etapas: a redução da ligação N=N, extração das aminas formadas e um posterior clean up e pre-concentração, sendo que para este último o sistema que apresentou melhor resposta em termos de eficiência de extração (da ordem de 100%) foi com o uso de extração em fase sólida com resina de troca catiônica. Por outro lado, a extração das aminas 1, 7 e 8 da matriz têxtil foi obtida por ultrassom após o estudo de um planejamento fatorial de superfície de resposta, a uma temperatura de 52 ºC, tempo de ultrassom de 5 minutos e concentração de HCl de 0,77 mol/L, com recuperações de 105 a 115%. Como figuras de mérito do método otimizado tem-se: linearidade no intervalo de 50,11 409,1 mmol/L (R2 > 0,98), LD (2,43 6,70 mmol/L) e LQ (8,10 22,3 mmol/L), precisão (0,23 27,6%), robustez (por planejamento fatorial), seletividade, especificidade (estudos de estresse com extrato da amostra) e recuperação (valores acima). O método validado foi aplicado a sete amostras adquiridas no mercado local. Dentre elas, duas apresentaram picos com tempos de migração e espectros semelhantes às aminas 5, 7 e 15, sendo que as aminas 7 e 15 foram confirmadas por meio do método de LC-MS/MS adaptado da literatura o qual permitiu a caracterização dessas aminas nas matrizes têxteis analisadas. / The dyes which have chromophoric groups like azo (N = N) are widely used in numerous applications in industry to color various consumer goods, including textiles. However, because of carcinogenic aromatic amines formed when N=N bond is broken, its use is subject to the legislation. Considering the carcinogenic potential of aromatic amines, to quantify them in products intended for export, is needed. The standard technique for monitoring the presence of these amines in consumer goods such as textiles is a high performance liquid chromatography, however the capillary electrophoresis technique can be a good alternative. In this work 20 aromatic amines derived from azo dyes, banned by the European Community by Directive 2002/61/EC, were separated by capillary electrophoresis (CE) with UV-Vis detection, and confirmation of the presence these amines textile matrix was conducted by a method confirmatory LC-MS, adapted from the literature. The knowledge of the dissociation constant acid-base (pKa) in CE technique is necessary to obtain the optimum pH for the separation. In these way the pKa as well as the ionic mobilities for each aromatic amines were determined by curves of effective mobility as a function of pH. The optimum pH for the separation was 2.50 as determined by the simulator separation developed in the group (SIMLACE). About the separation methods studied, which had a higher number of separate amines (16 amines) in the baseline in a shorter time (12 min) employing a BGE composed only of 70 mmol/L sodium dihydrogen phosphate adjusted to pH 2.50 with phosphoric acid, with a conditioning capillary either at the beginning of the working day (10 minutes flush with BGE (sodium dihydrogen 70 mmol/L adjusted to pH 2.50 with phosphoric acid, triethylamine containing 12.3 mmol/L) at a pressure 950 mbar followed by applying a voltage of +30 kV for 10 minutes) and among replicas (1 minute of HCl 0.1 mol/L (950 mbar) followed by 1 minute of H2O (950 mbar)). The extraction of amines textile matrix involves three steps: reduction of N = N bond, extraction of the amines formed and a subsequent clean up and pre-concentration. About the latter step, the best response in terms of extraction efficiency (about 100%) was obtained using solid phase extraction (SPE) with cationic exchange resin. In addition, the best condition for ultrasound extraction of the amines 1, 7 and 8, was determined by means of a response surface factorial design with three variables and two levels. The optimum condition was: temperature of 52 °C, application of ultrasound for 5 min and HCl concentration of 0.77 mol/L, with recoveries of 105% to 115%. Figures of merit for optimized method include: linearity in the range from 50.11 to 409.1 mmol/L (R2> 0.98), LD (limit of detection, 2.43 to 6.70 mmol/L) and LQ (limit of quantification, 8.10 to 22.3 mmol/L), precision (0.23 to 27.6%), robustness (established by a factorial design), selectivity, specificity (stress studies with real sample extracts) and recovery (listed above). The validated method was applied to seven samples purchased at local markets. Among them, two presented peaks with migration times and spectra similar the amines 5, 7, 12 and 15. But, in only one sample the amines 7 and 15 were confirmed by LC-MS/MS.

Os corantes que apresentam grupos cromóforos do tipo azo (N=N) são amplamente empregados em numerosas aplicações na indústria, para colorir vários bens de consumo, dentre eles os têxteis. Entretanto, pelo fato de formarem aminas aromáticas carcinogênicas, quando a ligação N=N é rompida, seu uso está sujeito à legislação. Levando em consideração o potencial carcinogênico das aminas aromáticas, a quantificação das mesmas em produtos destinados à exportação se faz necessária. A técnica padrão para o monitoramento da presença dessas aminas em bens de consumo como os têxteis é a cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência, entretanto como alternativa tem-se a eletroforese capilar. Assim, neste trabalho 20 aminas aromáticas oriundas de azo corantes, banidas pela Comunidade Européia por meio da Diretiva 2002/61/EC, foram separadas por meio de eletroforese capilar (CE), com detecção no UV-Vis, e, a confirmação da presença dessas aminas em matrizes têxteis foi realizada por um método confirmatório de LC-MS, adaptado da literatura. Em CE o conhecimento das constantes de dissociação ácido-base se faz necessário para a otimização do pH ideal de corrida, assim estas, bem como mobilidades iônicas para cada uma das aminas aromáticas foram determinadas por meio de curvas de mobilidade efetiva em função do pH. O pH ótimo de separação de 2,50 foi determinado por meio do simulador de separação desenvolvido no grupo (SIMLACE). Dos métodos de separação estudados, o que apresentou maior número de aminas separadas (16 aminas) em linha de base em menor tempo (12 min) foi empregando um BGE composto apenas de 70 mmol/L de dihidrogenofosfato de sódio ajustado a pH 2,50 com ácido fosfórico, considerando um condicionamento de capilar de início de trabalho de 10 minutos de flush com BGE (dihidrogenofosfato de sódio 70 mmol/L ajustado a pH 2,50 com ácido fosfórico, contendo trietilamina 12,3 mmol/L) a uma pressão de 950 mbar, seguido da aplicação de uma tensão de +30 kV por 10 minutos; e um condicionamento entre réplicas de corrida eletroforética de 1 minuto de HCl 0,1mol/L (950 mbar) seguidos de 1 minuto de H2O (950 mbar). A extração das aminas da matriz têxtil envolve três etapas: a redução da ligação N=N, extração das aminas formadas e um posterior clean up e pre-concentração, sendo que para este último o sistema que apresentou melhor resposta em termos de eficiência de extração (da ordem de 100%) foi com o uso de extração em fase sólida com resina de troca catiônica. Por outro lado, a extração das aminas 1, 7 e 8 da matriz têxtil foi obtida por ultrassom após o estudo de um planejamento fatorial de superfície de resposta, a uma temperatura de 52 ºC, tempo de ultrassom de 5 minutos e concentração de HCl de 0,77 mol/L, com recuperações de 105 a 115%. Como figuras de mérito do método otimizado tem-se: linearidade no intervalo de 50,11 409,1 mmol/L (R2 > 0,98), LD (2,43 6,70 mmol/L) e LQ (8,10 22,3 mmol/L), precisão (0,23 27,6%), robustez (por planejamento fatorial), seletividade, especificidade (estudos de estresse com extrato da amostra) e recuperação (valores acima). O método validado foi aplicado a sete amostras adquiridas no mercado local. Dentre elas, duas apresentaram picos com tempos de migração e espectros semelhantes às aminas 5, 7 e 15, sendo que as aminas 7 e 15 foram confirmadas por meio do método de LC-MS/MS adaptado da literatura o qual permitiu a caracterização dessas aminas nas matrizes têxteis analisadas. / The dyes which have chromophoric groups like azo (N = N) are widely used in numerous applications in industry to color various consumer goods, including textiles. However, because of carcinogenic aromatic amines formed when N=N bond is broken, its use is subject to the legislation. Considering the carcinogenic potential of aromatic amines, to quantify them in products intended for export, is needed. The standard technique for monitoring the presence of these amines in consumer goods such as textiles is a high performance liquid chromatography, however the capillary electrophoresis technique can be a good alternative. In this work 20 aromatic amines derived from azo dyes, banned by the European Community by Directive 2002/61/EC, were separated by capillary electrophoresis (CE) with UV-Vis detection, and confirmation of the presence these amines textile matrix was conducted by a method confirmatory LC-MS, adapted from the literature. The knowledge of the dissociation constant acid-base (pKa) in CE technique is necessary to obtain the optimum pH for the separation. In these way the pKa as well as the ionic mobilities for each aromatic amines were determined by curves of effective mobility as a function of pH. The optimum pH for the separation was 2.50 as determined by the simulator separation developed in the group (SIMLACE). About the separation methods studied, which had a higher number of separate amines (16 amines) in the baseline in a shorter time (12 min) employing a BGE composed only of 70 mmol/L sodium dihydrogen phosphate adjusted to pH 2.50 with phosphoric acid, with a conditioning capillary either at the beginning of the working day (10 minutes flush with BGE (sodium dihydrogen 70 mmol/L adjusted to pH 2.50 with phosphoric acid, triethylamine containing 12.3 mmol/L) at a pressure 950 mbar followed by applying a voltage of +30 kV for 10 minutes) and among replicas (1 minute of HCl 0.1 mol/L (950 mbar) followed by 1 minute of H2O (950 mbar)). The extraction of amines textile matrix involves three steps: reduction of N = N bond, extraction of the amines formed and a subsequent clean up and pre-concentration. About the latter step, the best response in terms of extraction efficiency (about 100%) was obtained using solid phase extraction (SPE) with cationic exchange resin. In addition, the best condition for ultrasound extraction of the amines 1, 7 and 8, was determined by means of a response surface factorial design with three variables and two levels. The optimum condition was: temperature of 52 °C, application of ultrasound for 5 min and HCl concentration of 0.77 mol/L, with recoveries of 105% to 115%. Figures of merit for optimized method include: linearity in the range from 50.11 to 409.1 mmol/L (R2> 0.98), LD (limit of detection, 2.43 to 6.70 mmol/L) and LQ (limit of quantification, 8.10 to 22.3 mmol/L), precision (0.23 to 27.6%), robustness (established by a factorial design), selectivity, specificity (stress studies with real sample extracts) and recovery (listed above). The validated method was applied to seven samples purchased at local markets. Among them, two presented peaks with migration times and spectra similar the amines 5, 7, 12 and 15. But, in only one sample the amines 7 and 15 were confirmed by LC-MS/MS.

The antimutagenic potency of wheat grain and berry extracts was studied in vitro against several heterocyclic amines (HCAs) using the Salmonella mutagenicity assay and the anticarcinogencity of wheat grain was studied in vivo using the rat colonic aberrant crypt focus assay. Wheat bran, which binds HCAs in vitro, as well as refined wheat and unrefined whole wheat, inhibited the mutagenic activities of 2-amino-3- methylimidazo [4, 5-f] quinoline (IQ), 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4, 5-b]pyridine (PhIP) and 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx) when they were co-incubated and the supernatant (minus grain) was added to the Salmonella mutagenicity assay. The water-soluble fraction alone from refined and unrefined wheat, but not bran, also inhibited these mutagens in vitro. In vivo, AIN- 93G diets containing refined wheat or unrefined wheat were examined for their ability to inhibit IQ-induced colonic aberrant crypt foci (ACF) in the F344 rat. A slight increase in the number of aberrant crypts/ACF (AC/ACF) was seen after 16 weeks in rats treated post-initiation with refined wheat (p<0.05), and fewer foci with 2 or 3 aberrant crypts (ACF-2) were found in rats given unrefined whole wheat post-initiation compared with animals treated with the same diet during the initiation phase (p<0.05). There was no significant difference in the profile of IQ urinary metabolites or excretion of promutagens 0-48 hours after carcinogen dosing, and grains had no effect on hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1, CYP1A2, aryl sulfotransferase, or N-acetyltransferase activities; however, a slightly higher UDP-glucuronosyl transferase activity was observed in rats fed unrefined wheat compared with refined wheat diets (p<0.05). Thus, despite their antimutagenic activities in vitro, only marginal effects were seen with refined and unrefined wheat in vivo with respect to induction of hepatic enzyme activities, carcinogen metabolism, or IQ-induced ACF in the rat colon. The fresh juice and extract of crandall black currant (Ribes aureum) were not mutagens in the Salmonella mutagenicity assay. Berry extract or fresh juice at levels to 50 ��l (22 mg berry) in a 500 ��l pre-incubation system significantly inhibited the mutagenicity of IQ, a mutagen from cooked meat, by 32% when rat liver S9 bioactivation system was present. One hundred ��l of crandall black currant extract gave 89% inhibition of IQ mutagenicity (p<0.05). However, the mutagenicity of 2-hydroxyamino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f] quinoline (N-hydroxy- IQ), a direct-acting metabolite of IQ, was not affected. An in vitro fluorometric assay showed the activity of cytochrome P 450 (CYP) 1A1 and CYP 1A2 was decreased. Inhibition of CYP 1A2 activity may be an important mechanism of antimutagenicity of crandall black currant extract. Similar results were also observed with other berry samples. Key word: cereal grains, black currant, berry, aberrant crypt foci, heterocyclic amines, CYP1A1, CYP1A2, Salmonella mutagenicity assay. / Graduation date: 2003

Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons rapporté que la combinaison unique de l'hexafluoroisopropanol (HFIP), utilisé comme solvant, et des conditions hyperbares (10-15 kbar) permet une addition sans précédent de nucléophiles-1,4 pauvres, comme les amines aromatiques, sur des récepteurs Michael encombrés, sans promoteur externe. De plus, l'addition d'hétéro-Michael d'anilines fonctionnellement substituées sur des esters insaturés-α,β est définie par la différence d'acidité entre le solvant et l'amine. La réaction avec des anilines plus basiques se déroule facilement dans le méthanol. En revanche, les solvants protiques très polaires comme les alcools fluorés (HFIP et TFE) favorisent l'addition d'aza-Michael de nucléophiles plus faibles. Enfin, une méthode verte et sans catalyseur de construction de nouveaux dérivés d'acides aminés contenant des fragments d'adamantane et d'aziridine a été développée. Et il est prouvé que la réaction d'aza-Michael initie la formation de l’hétérocycle. / Along this PhD work, we have reported that the unique combination of hexafluoroisopropanol (HFIP), employed as solvent, and hyperbaric conditions (10-15 kbar) allows unprecedented 1,4-addition of poor nucleophiles such as aromatic amines onto sluggish (cumbersome) Michael acceptors without any promoter nor work-up. Moreover, The hetero-Michael addition of functionally substituted anilines to α,β-unsaturated esters is significantly defined by the difference of acidity between the solvent and the amine. Reaction with more basic anilines proceeds smoothly in methanol. In contrast, very polar protic solvent such as fluorinated alcohols (HFIP and TFE) favor the aza-Michael addition of more weak nucleophiles. Finally, green and catalyst-free method of new amino acid derivatives construction containing adamantane and aziridine fragments was developed. And it is proved that aza-Michael reaction initiates the formation of heterocycle.

<p>Neurological disorders are a major public health concern due to prevalence, severity of symptoms, and impact on caregivers and economic losses. While genetic susceptibility likely has a role in most cases, exposure to toxicants can lead to neurotoxicity, including potentially developmental origins of adult disease or increased risk of disease onset. These exposures are not necessarily large, acute exposures, but could accumulate, with a chronic low-dose exposure, causing toxicity. This research focuses on the potential neurotoxicity of two classes of dietary toxins/toxicants, heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). HAAs, such as PhIP, harmane, and harmine, are formed in charred or overcooked meat, coffee, tobacco, and other foods. PFAS are largely used in making household materials, but are found in small amounts in eggs and dairy products and largely in contaminated water. While these two classes are diverse in terms of structure, common neurotoxic targets and mechanisms often exist. Therefore, we tested the effects of these chemicals on cell viability and neurotoxicity. In the first aim, we aimed to elucidate the mechanism of toxicity of harmane and harmine, focusing on their ability to cause mitochondrial dysfunction. The second aim was to determine the effects of either harmane or PhIP on the nigrostriatal motor systems and motor function of rats and mice, respectively. The third aim determined the effects of PFAS on neurodevelopment of Northern leopard frogs, focusing on changes in neurotransmitter levels and accumulation in the brain. Harmane did not cause motor dysfunction, but potentially affected the nigro-striatal motor system in an age- or sex-dependent manner. PhIP had differential effects on dopamine levels over time and caused motor dysfunction after subchronic exposure in mice. Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) accumulated in the brains of frogs and PFAS caused changes in neurotransmitter levels that were dose- and time-dependent. Overall, this research shows that toxins/toxicants humans are exposed to over their whole lives through their diet and contaminated water can cause neurotoxicity, potentially leading to or increasing risk of disease states. </p>

Atualmente, a utilização de azo corantes por vários ramos industriais constitui um problema ambiental e de saúde pública, tendo em vista o lançamento de quantidades elevadas para o meio ambiente e a falta de dados toxicológicos a cerca dos corantes e de seus metabólitos gerados, principalmente, após os processos de oxidação e redução. Nosso grupo realizou ensaios com micronúcleos em linfócitos humanos e em células HepG2 e ensaio de mutagenicidade com Salmonella typhimurium, demonstrando que os azo corantes Disperse Red 1, Disperse Red 13 e Disperse Orange 1 são mutagênicos para os diferentes parâmetros. Dessa forma, neste trabalho foi avaliada a capacidade de ligação dos corantes originais com o DNA e a base nitrogenada guanosina, a fim de elucidar o mecanismo de ação mutagênica. Adicionalmente, foi realizada a análise do potencial mutagênico do corante Disperse Red 1 e de seus metabólitos por meio do teste de mutação gênica em células de linfomas de camundongo (Mouse Lymphoma Assay), e também foram avaliados os produtos de oxidação e redução dos azo corantes Disperse Red 1, Disperse Red 13 e Disperse Orange 1, por meio do teste de mutagenicidade com Salmonella typhimurium. Posteriormente, foi investigada a possível formação de aminas aromáticas e de outros compostos, após os ensaios eletroquímicos e reação com S9, utilizando CLAE/DAD e CG/EM. Nossos resultados mostraram que a formação de adutos com o DNA, especificamente com a base guanosina, não é o mecanismo de ação tóxica preferencial para os azo corantes estudados. O corante Disperse Red 1 e seus produtos de biotransformação apresentaram resultados negativos no teste de mutação gênica em células de linfoma de camundongos. No entanto, tanto os produtos de oxidação como os de redução dos três corantes estudados apresentaram potencial mutagênico ao serem testados no Ensaio Salmonella/microssoma. Os produtos identificados após a oxidação química e enzimática (utilizando S9) e redução química dos três corantes estudados foram: sulfato 2-[(4-aminofenil)etilamino]- etanol monohidratada, 2-cloro-4-nitro-benzamina, benzamina, nitrobenzeno, 4-nitro-benzamina, 2-(etilfenilamino)-etanol, N-fenilbenzamina, N-fenil-1,4-benzenodiamina. Portanto, nossos dados mostram que a exposição por via oral a esses corantes tem relevância toxicológica, visto que podem causar danos à saúde não somente pela exposição aos corantes inalterados, mas também devido à formação de produtos tóxicos após a biotransformação. Cabe ressaltar que os corantes estudados no presente trabalho são amplamente utilizados por indústrias têxteis no Brasil, o que pode levar à contaminação de águas e alimentos. / Currently, the use of azo dyes by various industries is an environmental problem and public health, considering the release of large quantities to the environment and the lack of toxicological data about the dyes and their metabolites generated, especially after the processes of oxidation and reduction. Our group carried out micronuclei assay in human lymphocytes and HepG2 cells and mutagenicity test with Salmonella typhimurium, indicating that the azo dyes Disperse Red 1, Disperse Red 13 and Disperse Orange 1 are mutagenic to the different parameters. Thus, this study evaluated the binding capacity of the original dyes with DNA and nitrogenous base guanosine in order to elucidate the mechanism of mutagenic action. Additionally, we performed the analysis of mutagenic potential of Disperse Red 1 dye and its metabolites using Mouse Lymphoma Assay, and also evaluated the products of oxidation and reduction of the azo dyes Disperse Red 1, Disperse Red 13 and Disperse Orange 1, using the mutagenicity test with Salmonella typhimurium. Also it was investigated the possible formation of aromatic amines and other compounds after the electrochemical assays and reaction with S9, using HPLC / DAD and GC / MS. Our results showed that the formation of adducts with DNA, specifically with the guanosine base is not the preferred mechanism of toxic action for the azo dyes studied. The dye Disperse Red 1 and its biotransformation products had negative results in the mouse lymphoma assay. However, both the products of oxidation and the reduction of three dyes studied showed mutagenic potential in the Salmonella/ microsome assay. The products identified after chemical and enzymatic oxidation (using S9) and chemical reduction of three dyes studied were: sulfate 2-[(4- aminophenyl)ethylamino]-Ethanol monohydrate, 2-chloro-4-nitro-benzamine, benzamine, nitrobenzene, 4-nitro-benzamine, 2-(ethylphenylamino)-Ethanol, Nphenyl- benzamine, N-phenyl-1,4-benzenediamine. Therefore, our data show that oral exposure to these dyes have toxicological significance, since it can cause damage to health not only by exposure to dyes unchanged, but also due to the formation of toxic products after the biotransformation. It is noteworthy that the dyes studied in this work are widely used by textile industries in Brazil, which can lead to contamination of food and water.

Die Zahl der Kolonkarzinome in den westlichen Industrieländern steigt in den letzten Jahren stetig an. Zu den Verbindungen, die mit der Zubereitung der Nahrung entstehen, mit ihr aufgenommen werden und die Kolonkanzerogenese möglicherweise begünstigen, gehört das heterozyklische aromatische PhIP, das bei der Erhitzung proteinreicher Nahrungsmittel entsteht. Neben zahlreichen Fütterungsversuchen an Nagern existieren auch Zellkulturmodelle zur Untersuchung der molekularen Mechanismen der PhIP-induzierten Kolonkanzerogenese. Die chemische Transformation von Zellen sollte durch wiederholte Exposition gegenüber dem hydroxylierten Metaboliten des Kanzerogens (N2-OH-PhIP) erzielt werden. Es wurden IEC-18-Zellen der Ratte und HCEC-Zellen des Menschen zur Untersuchung verwendet. Die Behandlung der IEC-18-Zellen führt nach 25 Behandlungszyklen mit Konzentrationen von 5 bis 20 µM nicht zur Transformation der Zellen. Die Anwesenheit von N2-OH-PhIP führt zu einer zehnfach erhöhten Induktion der GST-Aktivität, insbesondere der Untereinheiten GST-A1, -A3, -Pi und -T2, die für die effiziente Detoxifizierung des N-Acetoxy-Metaboliten vom N2-OH-PhIP verantwortlich sind. Bereits nach drei Behandlungen mit 1,5 µM N2-OH-PhIP konnte eine maligne Transformation der HCEC-Zellen erzielt werden. Die Zellen zeigten die charakteristischen Zeichen der Transformation: veränderte Wachstumseigenschaften wie klonales dreidimensionales Zellwachstum („pilling up“), Hemmung der Zell-Zell-Kontaktinhibierung, verkürzte Populationsverdopplungszeiten und tumorigene und metastasierende Eigenschaften. Außerdem exprimierten die N2-OH-PhIP-exponierten humanen Kolonzellen mit steigender Anzahl der Behandlungen größere Mengen des trunkierten APC-Proteins. Die bekannten PhIP-spezifischen Mutationen im APC-Gen resultieren in der Expression eines trunkierten Proteinproduktes und werden als frühe Ereignisse in der Kolonkanzerogenese betrachtet. Die zusammenfassende Betrachtung aller Ergebnisse zeigt, dass die IEC-18-Zelllinie zur chemischen Transformation durch N2-OH-PhIP ungeeignet ist. Dagegen wurde erstmalig eine vollständige chemische Transformation von Humandickdarmepithelzellen in vitro durch Exposition der humanen Kolonepithelzelllinie HCEC gegenüber dem Kolonkarzinogen N2-OH-PhIP erzielt. / In the last few years a strong increase in the incidence of colorectal cancer has been observed. As to the specific components in processed food responsible for the induction of colon cancerogenesis / it has been suggested that heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAA), e.g. the most abundant HAA 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), which is formed in protein rich food, when it is cooked at high temperatures or over an open flame, might be involved in this process. Whereas a number of in vivo-models to study PhIP-mediated colon carcinogenesis are known, only a limited number of cell culture systems to study the HAA-mediated transformation of intestinal epithelial cells do in fact exist. In the present study IEC-18 cells (rat intestinal epithelial cells) and HCEC cells (human colon epithelial cells) were incubated with N2-OH-PhIP, the N-hydroxylated metabolite of PhIP. The IEC-18 cells could not be transformed despite 25 treatment cycles with 5 to 20 µM N2-OH-PhIP. This might be due to the fact that GST activity as well as the expression of the GST -A1, -A3, -Pi and -T2 units, which are responsible for the detoxication of the N-acetoxy derivative of PhIP were strongly induced by N2-OH-PhIP. In contrast, HCEC cells were malignantly transformed when exposed three times to 1.5 µM N2-OH-PhIP. The chemically-treated cells showed a reduced population doubling time, they lost cell-cell contact inhibition and started pilling up. Furthermore, if HCEC cells were injected subcutaneously into SCID mice tumors developed at the site of injection in all animals tested. The transformed HCEC cells also express high amounts of truncated APC protein, which in vivo appears at an early stage of colon cancerogenesis. Taken together, it has been shown that IEC-18 cells are not suitable for chemical transformation studies with the HAA metabolite N2-OH-PhIP. For the first time it has been shown that the HAA metabolite N2-OH-PhIP is indeed able to malignantly transform human colon epithelial cells in vitro.

Isocyanates, aromatic-, aliphatic- and alkanolamines are commonly used in the industry today. Millions of workers in Europe are exposed. The most frequent health symptoms are respiratory and dermal disorder. Due to the health risk most of the compounds in this thesis are regulated by authorities and have occupational exposure limits (OELs). Consequently, reliable and robust air sampling methods are urgently needed. In this thesis dry samplers for isocyanates, aliphatic- and alkanolamines have been developed and evaluated. The isocyanate sampler is now a commercial product (ASSET EZ4-NCP Dry Sampler, Supelco). The samplers were based on a denuder with a filter in series. The denuder and filter were impregnated with di-n-butylamine for the isocyanate sampler and with sulphuric acid for the aliphatic- and alkanolamine sampler. The robustness of the dry samplers was extensively evaluated. This was performed in a climate chamber containing a controlled atmosphere of the studied compounds. New methods based on hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (MSMS) were developed for determination of aromatic-, aliphatic- and alkanolamines in aqueous solutions. Isocyanates were determined by reversed-phase liquid chromatography MSMS. HILIC in combination with MS is a most powerful system, and highly sensitive determinations, several orders of magnitude below the OELs, of polar compounds present in the work environment can be accomplished. The selected samplers enable sampling during short sampling times and for whole work shifts. The samplers can be stored for months before and after sampling. The performance of the samplers was unaffected by variation in temperature, humidity, flow-rate and pre- and post-sampling of ambient air. Sampling for the compounds studied is now greatly simplified, and assessment of the work environment is facilitated. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defence the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 1: Epub ahead of print; Papers 3-5: Manuscripts</p>