The aim of the thesis is twofold: the first aim is to identify a number of reproductive logics that are used to construct Swedish regulation of embryo donation for reproductive use as either ethical or unethical in the governmental – and medical discussions – and to examine how these logics are interconnected with notions of gender and parenthood. The second aim is to identify a number of tensions that arise in the application of the governmental ethical logic on the embryo and embryo donation and discuss how these tensions can be solved with a feminist material approach. I argue that the terminology used to distinguish between genetic, biological, social and legal parenthood in my material is insufficient for understanding the value of the embryo outside its pre-human status. I therefore argue for an embryonic feminist bioethics that is attentive to the embryos post-human status, and for a reformulation of the parenthood terminology in line with what I call „reproductive ties‟.

A impossibilidade de engravidar pode desencadear consequências psíquicas importantes, visto que barra a mulher no momento em que ela sente-se pronta para vivenciar a experiência da maternidade. Nesse sentido, a reprodução assistida vem possibilitando a maternidade para aquelas que não conseguiam conceber uma criança naturalmente. Contudo, percebe-se que os impactos emocionais não estão restritos à descoberta da infertilidade, estando presentes durante o processo do tratamento. Assim, para aquelas que obtiverem sucesso no tratamento, questiona-se a configuração da experiência de maternidade em meio a este contexto, que muitas vezes está atravessado por outro aspecto: a gravidez múltipla. Para abordar este fenômeno de forma ampla, foram realizados dois estudos. O Estudo 1 tinha como objetivo investigar a experiência da implantação de múltiplos embriões em mulheres que se submeteram à técnica FIV. Para tanto, foram analisadas entrevistas de mulheres que se submeteram à FIV e que mencionaram esta questão de implantação de múltiplos embriões espontaneamente. As entrevistas ocorreram no 3º trimestre gestacional destas participantes, contando inicialmente com 21 mulheres, restando após a seleção que discriminou as que não haviam trazido este tema 14 participantes. Percebeu-se que o tema da experiência da implantação em si foi comum estando presente nos relatos das 14 mulheres. Contudo, a gravidez múltipla despertara vivências distintas em relação à gravidez singular, pois na gravidez singular fantasias quanto à implantação de múltiplos embriões foram vivenciadas, mas nas mulheres que conceberam uma gravidez múltipla estas tinham se tornado concretas, de forma que estas mulheres pareciam estar se preparando para maternidade com mais de um bebê. O Estudo 2 tinha como objetivo investigar a experiência da maternidade de uma gravidez múltipla nesse contexto. Para tanto, contou com três mulheres que estavam no seu 3º trimestre gestacional. Neste estudo, ficou evidenciado o sofrimento destas mulheres ao se defrontarem com a infertilidade conjugal e ao se submeterem a tratamentos invasivos. Contudo, verificou-se que a experiência da gravidez pode reprimir este sofrimento para que estas mulheres vivenciem integralmente a experiência da maternidade. Neste sentido, este estudo levantou a discussão de que as TRA se configuram como uma forma distinta de concepção, entretanto, não levam a uma forma distinta de maternidade. / The impossibility of getting pregnant can lead to significant psychological effects, because it represents an obstacle for a woman at a time when she feels ready to go through the experience of motherhood. In this sense, assisted reproduction has enabled the experience of motherhood for those who could not conceive a child naturally. However, the emotional impact is not restricted to the discovery of infertility, being present, often, during the treatment process. Besides, for those who are successful in treatment, it is wondered how is the experience of motherhood in this context, that can still be influenced by another aspect: multiple pregnancy. Two studies were carried out. The first study was aimed to investigate the experience of implantation of multiple embryos into women who underwent IVF technique. To this end, interviews of women who underwent IVF and who mentioned the issue of implantation of multiple embryos spontaneously were analyzed. The interviews took place in the third trimester of pregnancy, with 14 women. It was noticed that the theme of the experience of implantation itself was common to all these women. However, multiple pregnancy revealed different experiences in singular as compared to singular pregnancy. Whereas in singular pregnancy the implantation of multiple embryos was only a ´possibility which was not later confirmed, in women who conceived a multiple pregnancy the fantasy became reality, so these woman seemed to be preparing for motherhood with more than one baby. The second study was designed to investigate the experience of motherhood in the context of multiple pregnancy. This involved three women who were in their third trimester of pregnancy. In this study, it became evident the suffering of these women when they were confronted with the couple’s infertility and had to undergo invasive treatments. However, it was found that the experience of pregnancy can suppress this suffering so that these women can experience the full experience of motherhood. Thus, this study raised the discussion that although TRA involves a distinct form of conception, it does not imply a distinct form of maternity.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Este estudo tem por objetivo investigar os fatores que regem a motivação de homens a doarem gametas, anônima e gratuitamente, em banco de sêmen, visando à procriação de pessoas inférteis que se submetem aos tratamentos de reprodução assistida. O material pesquisado aponta para o fato que tanto a prática quanto os doadores costumam ser associados ao utilitarismo, à pecúnia e aos comportamentos desviantes, e mesmo parte dos agentes apresentou dificuldade em assumir-se altruísta. O fenômeno seria justificado por diversos fatores históricos e culturais. Contudo, tomando como base um conjunto de entrevistas realizadas com doadores e a teoria do dom, constatou-se que, para parte do grupo, a experiência com a doação envolveu conflitos que foram transpostos para que fosse cumprido o seu objetivo de vida, ou missão de vida. Nestes termos e, de acordo com os resultados da investigação, afirmamos que a doação de sêmen encontra-se inserida na esfera da dádiva. / This study investigated the factors that are conducive to a motivation of individuals to donate semen, aiming to facilitate procreation by ART users. On the social science field, both donation and donors tend to be associated with utilitarianism, the search for pecuniary compensation, deviant behaviors; for some persons interviewed, there were difficulties to assume that they were being altruistic. These matters of personal conduct can be explained by historical and cultural factors. This research has shown that donation motivation should be considered in the spirit of a gift relationship. This study concludes that the donation of semen was primarily motivated by altruism. The almost entire group of donors had to overcome conflicts in the process of sperm collection, which were resolved by a life mission idea. In these terms, according to the investigation results, semen donation should be construed as a social phenomenon inserted into the gift sphere.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Este estudo tem por objetivo investigar os fatores que regem a motivação de homens a doarem gametas, anônima e gratuitamente, em banco de sêmen, visando à procriação de pessoas inférteis que se submetem aos tratamentos de reprodução assistida. O material pesquisado aponta para o fato que tanto a prática quanto os doadores costumam ser associados ao utilitarismo, à pecúnia e aos comportamentos desviantes, e mesmo parte dos agentes apresentou dificuldade em assumir-se altruísta. O fenômeno seria justificado por diversos fatores históricos e culturais. Contudo, tomando como base um conjunto de entrevistas realizadas com doadores e a teoria do dom, constatou-se que, para parte do grupo, a experiência com a doação envolveu conflitos que foram transpostos para que fosse cumprido o seu objetivo de vida, ou missão de vida. Nestes termos e, de acordo com os resultados da investigação, afirmamos que a doação de sêmen encontra-se inserida na esfera da dádiva. / This study investigated the factors that are conducive to a motivation of individuals to donate semen, aiming to facilitate procreation by ART users. On the social science field, both donation and donors tend to be associated with utilitarianism, the search for pecuniary compensation, deviant behaviors; for some persons interviewed, there were difficulties to assume that they were being altruistic. These matters of personal conduct can be explained by historical and cultural factors. This research has shown that donation motivation should be considered in the spirit of a gift relationship. This study concludes that the donation of semen was primarily motivated by altruism. The almost entire group of donors had to overcome conflicts in the process of sperm collection, which were resolved by a life mission idea. In these terms, according to the investigation results, semen donation should be construed as a social phenomenon inserted into the gift sphere.

A impossibilidade de engravidar pode desencadear consequências psíquicas importantes, visto que barra a mulher no momento em que ela sente-se pronta para vivenciar a experiência da maternidade. Nesse sentido, a reprodução assistida vem possibilitando a maternidade para aquelas que não conseguiam conceber uma criança naturalmente. Contudo, percebe-se que os impactos emocionais não estão restritos à descoberta da infertilidade, estando presentes durante o processo do tratamento. Assim, para aquelas que obtiverem sucesso no tratamento, questiona-se a configuração da experiência de maternidade em meio a este contexto, que muitas vezes está atravessado por outro aspecto: a gravidez múltipla. Para abordar este fenômeno de forma ampla, foram realizados dois estudos. O Estudo 1 tinha como objetivo investigar a experiência da implantação de múltiplos embriões em mulheres que se submeteram à técnica FIV. Para tanto, foram analisadas entrevistas de mulheres que se submeteram à FIV e que mencionaram esta questão de implantação de múltiplos embriões espontaneamente. As entrevistas ocorreram no 3º trimestre gestacional destas participantes, contando inicialmente com 21 mulheres, restando após a seleção que discriminou as que não haviam trazido este tema 14 participantes. Percebeu-se que o tema da experiência da implantação em si foi comum estando presente nos relatos das 14 mulheres. Contudo, a gravidez múltipla despertara vivências distintas em relação à gravidez singular, pois na gravidez singular fantasias quanto à implantação de múltiplos embriões foram vivenciadas, mas nas mulheres que conceberam uma gravidez múltipla estas tinham se tornado concretas, de forma que estas mulheres pareciam estar se preparando para maternidade com mais de um bebê. O Estudo 2 tinha como objetivo investigar a experiência da maternidade de uma gravidez múltipla nesse contexto. Para tanto, contou com três mulheres que estavam no seu 3º trimestre gestacional. Neste estudo, ficou evidenciado o sofrimento destas mulheres ao se defrontarem com a infertilidade conjugal e ao se submeterem a tratamentos invasivos. Contudo, verificou-se que a experiência da gravidez pode reprimir este sofrimento para que estas mulheres vivenciem integralmente a experiência da maternidade. Neste sentido, este estudo levantou a discussão de que as TRA se configuram como uma forma distinta de concepção, entretanto, não levam a uma forma distinta de maternidade. / The impossibility of getting pregnant can lead to significant psychological effects, because it represents an obstacle for a woman at a time when she feels ready to go through the experience of motherhood. In this sense, assisted reproduction has enabled the experience of motherhood for those who could not conceive a child naturally. However, the emotional impact is not restricted to the discovery of infertility, being present, often, during the treatment process. Besides, for those who are successful in treatment, it is wondered how is the experience of motherhood in this context, that can still be influenced by another aspect: multiple pregnancy. Two studies were carried out. The first study was aimed to investigate the experience of implantation of multiple embryos into women who underwent IVF technique. To this end, interviews of women who underwent IVF and who mentioned the issue of implantation of multiple embryos spontaneously were analyzed. The interviews took place in the third trimester of pregnancy, with 14 women. It was noticed that the theme of the experience of implantation itself was common to all these women. However, multiple pregnancy revealed different experiences in singular as compared to singular pregnancy. Whereas in singular pregnancy the implantation of multiple embryos was only a ´possibility which was not later confirmed, in women who conceived a multiple pregnancy the fantasy became reality, so these woman seemed to be preparing for motherhood with more than one baby. The second study was designed to investigate the experience of motherhood in the context of multiple pregnancy. This involved three women who were in their third trimester of pregnancy. In this study, it became evident the suffering of these women when they were confronted with the couple’s infertility and had to undergo invasive treatments. However, it was found that the experience of pregnancy can suppress this suffering so that these women can experience the full experience of motherhood. Thus, this study raised the discussion that although TRA involves a distinct form of conception, it does not imply a distinct form of maternity.

A impossibilidade de engravidar pode desencadear consequências psíquicas importantes, visto que barra a mulher no momento em que ela sente-se pronta para vivenciar a experiência da maternidade. Nesse sentido, a reprodução assistida vem possibilitando a maternidade para aquelas que não conseguiam conceber uma criança naturalmente. Contudo, percebe-se que os impactos emocionais não estão restritos à descoberta da infertilidade, estando presentes durante o processo do tratamento. Assim, para aquelas que obtiverem sucesso no tratamento, questiona-se a configuração da experiência de maternidade em meio a este contexto, que muitas vezes está atravessado por outro aspecto: a gravidez múltipla. Para abordar este fenômeno de forma ampla, foram realizados dois estudos. O Estudo 1 tinha como objetivo investigar a experiência da implantação de múltiplos embriões em mulheres que se submeteram à técnica FIV. Para tanto, foram analisadas entrevistas de mulheres que se submeteram à FIV e que mencionaram esta questão de implantação de múltiplos embriões espontaneamente. As entrevistas ocorreram no 3º trimestre gestacional destas participantes, contando inicialmente com 21 mulheres, restando após a seleção que discriminou as que não haviam trazido este tema 14 participantes. Percebeu-se que o tema da experiência da implantação em si foi comum estando presente nos relatos das 14 mulheres. Contudo, a gravidez múltipla despertara vivências distintas em relação à gravidez singular, pois na gravidez singular fantasias quanto à implantação de múltiplos embriões foram vivenciadas, mas nas mulheres que conceberam uma gravidez múltipla estas tinham se tornado concretas, de forma que estas mulheres pareciam estar se preparando para maternidade com mais de um bebê. O Estudo 2 tinha como objetivo investigar a experiência da maternidade de uma gravidez múltipla nesse contexto. Para tanto, contou com três mulheres que estavam no seu 3º trimestre gestacional. Neste estudo, ficou evidenciado o sofrimento destas mulheres ao se defrontarem com a infertilidade conjugal e ao se submeterem a tratamentos invasivos. Contudo, verificou-se que a experiência da gravidez pode reprimir este sofrimento para que estas mulheres vivenciem integralmente a experiência da maternidade. Neste sentido, este estudo levantou a discussão de que as TRA se configuram como uma forma distinta de concepção, entretanto, não levam a uma forma distinta de maternidade. / The impossibility of getting pregnant can lead to significant psychological effects, because it represents an obstacle for a woman at a time when she feels ready to go through the experience of motherhood. In this sense, assisted reproduction has enabled the experience of motherhood for those who could not conceive a child naturally. However, the emotional impact is not restricted to the discovery of infertility, being present, often, during the treatment process. Besides, for those who are successful in treatment, it is wondered how is the experience of motherhood in this context, that can still be influenced by another aspect: multiple pregnancy. Two studies were carried out. The first study was aimed to investigate the experience of implantation of multiple embryos into women who underwent IVF technique. To this end, interviews of women who underwent IVF and who mentioned the issue of implantation of multiple embryos spontaneously were analyzed. The interviews took place in the third trimester of pregnancy, with 14 women. It was noticed that the theme of the experience of implantation itself was common to all these women. However, multiple pregnancy revealed different experiences in singular as compared to singular pregnancy. Whereas in singular pregnancy the implantation of multiple embryos was only a ´possibility which was not later confirmed, in women who conceived a multiple pregnancy the fantasy became reality, so these woman seemed to be preparing for motherhood with more than one baby. The second study was designed to investigate the experience of motherhood in the context of multiple pregnancy. This involved three women who were in their third trimester of pregnancy. In this study, it became evident the suffering of these women when they were confronted with the couple’s infertility and had to undergo invasive treatments. However, it was found that the experience of pregnancy can suppress this suffering so that these women can experience the full experience of motherhood. Thus, this study raised the discussion that although TRA involves a distinct form of conception, it does not imply a distinct form of maternity.

Introdução: A avaliação da reserva ovariana em reprodução assistida (RA) busca identificar mulheres em que a exaustão folicular determine as dificuldades reprodutivas. Além da idade, a presença de causas outras de subfertilidade, como a endometriose (EDT), implica interferências negativas potenciais sobre a resposta ovariana. Objetivo: Avaliar a reserva folicular ovariana de mulheres subférteis portadoras de endometriose e determinar o melhor preditor de má resposta em RA. Métodos: Foram analisados 87 ciclos de RA em mulheres com idade inferior a 40 anos, ciclos menstruais regulares, sem patologias endócrinas e com ambos os ovários, sendo 30 ciclos em portadoras de EDT (casos) e 57 ciclos em mulheres subférteis por fator masculino exclusivo (controles). A reserva ovariana foi inferida pelas dosagens basais dos hormônios anti-mülleriano (AMH) e folículo estimulante (FSH), a contagem de folículos antrais pequenos (CFA) e a medida do volume ovariano médio (VOM). Curvas Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC AUC) foram traçadas para avaliação da capacidade discriminatória de cada teste em identificar má resposta. Resultados: Pacientes com EDT apresentaram FSH basal significativamente maior em relação aos controles (9,13 ± 5,09 mUI/mL vs. 6,28 ± 2,45 mUI/mL; p < 0,05), sem diferenças para AMH, CFA e VOM. O número total de oócitos aspirados foi menor na EDT em relação aos controles (5,33 ± 3,43 vs. 8,28 ± 5,8; p < 0,05) e correlacionou-se significativamente com o AMH em ambos os grupos (EDT: r = 0,61; Controles: r = 0,58; p<0,0001). O FSH basal apresentou correlação significativa com o total de oócitos aspirados apenas na EDT (r = -0,48; p<0,01); também na EDT, o AMH basal foi o marcador individual com melhor potencial discriminatório para má resposta (AUC = 0,875), seguido de FSH basal (AUC = 0,682) e VOM (AUC = 0,665), enquanto no grupo controle, o AMH foi o melhor marcador (AUC = 0,8372), seguido do VOM (AUC = 0,709) e da CFA (AUC = 0,686). Conclusões: O FSH basal está significativamente maior nas pacientes subférteis com EDT e correlaciona-se com a resposta em RA apenas nas portadoras da doença. Já o AMH basal, é o marcador com o melhor potencial discriminatório de má resposta, independentemente da presença da endometriose. CFA e VOM não se apresentaram como bons preditores de má resposta. Sendo assim, a associação entre endometriose e subfertilidade deve estar vinculada a alterações do crescimento/desenvolvimento do folículo ovariano e não a prejuízos sobre a reserva folicular gonadal propriamente dita. / Introduction: Ovarian reserve evaluation in assisted reproduction (AR) aims to identify women in whom follicular exhaustion determines reproductive difficulties. More than age, the presence of other subfertility factors, such as endometriosis (EDT), implies potential negative interference on ovarian response. Objective: To evaluate follicular ovarian reserve in subfertile patients with endometriosis and determine the best predictor of poor response in AR. Methods: We evaluated 87 AR cycles of women presenting with less than 40 years of age, regular menses, no endocrine diseases and with both ovaries, divided in 30 EDT cycles (cases) and 57 cycles in women with subfertility associated to male factor (controls). Ovarian reserve was determined based on basal levels of anti-müllerian hormone (AMH) and follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH), small antral follicle count (AFC) and medium ovarian volume (MOV). Receiver Operating Characteristic curves (ROC AUC) were obtained for evaluation of discriminatory capacity of each test in identifying poor response. Results: EDT patients presented significantly higher basal FSH levels when compared to controls (9,13 ± 5,09 mUI/mL vs. 6,28 ± 2,45 mUI/mL; p < 0,05) and there were no differences in AMH, AFC and MOV between groups. The total number of oocytes retrieved was lower in endometriosis when compared to controls (5,33 ± 3,43 vs. 8,28 ± 5,8; p < 0,05) and significantly correlated with AMH in both groups (EDT: r = 0,61; Control: r = 0,58; p<0,0001). Basal FSH presented significant correlation with the number of oocytes retrieved only among EDT patients (r = - 0,48; p<0,01); in EDT patients, either, basal AMH was the individual marker with the best discriminatory potential for poor responders identification (AUC = 0,875), followed by basal FSH (AUC = 0,682) and MOV (AUC = 0,665), whereas among controls, AMH was the best marker (AUC = 0,8372), followed by MOV (AUC = 0,709) and AFC (AUC = 0,686). Conclusions: Basal FSH is significantly higher in subfertile patients with endometriosis and correlates with ovarian response in AR among these patients. Basal AMH, by the way, is the individual marker with the best discriminatory potential in determining poor response, which is not dependent on endometriosis presence. AFC and MOV did not presented as good predictors of poor response. The association between endometriosis and subfertility, therefore, may be linked to prejudice to growth/development of the ovarian follicle, but not to damage to the real ovarian follicular reserve.

Over the past decade, a ‘gayby boom’ (Richman, 2002) has occurred in the Israeli male-gay community: hundreds of gay couples became fathers through cross-border commercial surrogacy. This rise was accompanied by political struggles over access to surrogacy for same-sex couples within Israel. This study explores first, the causes of this sudden rise in ‘gay surrogacy’; and second, the social implications, especially pertaining to the alteration of family norms in the 21st century. Drawing on Science and Technology Studies (STS), surrogacy is analysed as an 'assemblage', consisting of the interaction between socially shaped practices and desires, the medical and legal technologies involved, and the overarching state apparatuses. To draw out the complexity of the different components of this assemblage (individual, medical and legal, and state), 31 gay surrogacy fathers were interviewed, along with Israeli surrogacy industry representatives (n=6) and policy makers (n=13). Media coverage of ‘gay surrogacy’ and documentation from relevant court appeals and state committees on reproductive technologies were incorporated into the analysis to provide a contextual framework. Three themes were identified. First, surrogacy provides Israeli gay men a unique combination of novelty and sameness: surrogacy offers ‘biological’ fatherhood, similar to that enjoyed by heterosexual couples, but also facilitates the creation of a new family model, the ‘two-father-family’. The contradiction between the application of technology and the idea of ‘procreation’ disappeared through a discursive normalising and neutralising mechanism, in which surrogacy serves as a stand-in for ‘natural procreation’. Through this process, assisted reproduction facilitated the normalisation of the gay family. Second, despite the fact that surrogacy markets operate globally, the State emerged as a significant force in shaping the specific mechanisms of the surrogacy process, as well as the procreative desires of the Israeli surrogacy fathers – who were geared towards both genetic procreation and reproducing the nation. Gay fatherhood through surrogacy was found to be part of the new ‘gaystream’ (Duggan, 2002), expressing desires towards a new (homo)normativity and participating in homonationalist (Puar, 2007) struggles. Finally, cross-border surrogacy operates in a global market, based upon the commerce of gametes and reproductive services involving third-party women, often from impoverished parts of the world (Vora, 2015). This creates a moral dilemma for commissioning fathers, regarding the commodification of women and children in the market for reproductive services, and the related harm and exploitation within surrogacy markets. Surrogacy fathers negotiated these moral conflicts by forming ideas and ideals of reciprocity, intimacy and shared commitment towards and with the surrogate. However, the realisation of these values is heavily dependent upon the regulatory regimes in the surrogacy state and the outcomes of the medical and physical procedures – that is, the birth of a live healthy child. In conclusion, surrogacy offers a site for making families and remaking ‘the family’. It is based on already existing familial norms, but at the same time partially unsettles these; it is shaped by state regulations and national desires; and it is deeply implicated in unequal global markets, while explicitly harbouring ideals of intimacy and reciprocity. As surrogacy becomes the normative familial form for gay men in Israel, the need arises for collective critical reflexion on the impacts of surrogacy practices on global ‘others’, and on minorities within the Israeli queer community.

This thesis deals with the problem of childlessness, fertility and infertility. The aim of this study was to trace the reproductive behavior and changes that have occurred over time. The current situation in the Czech Republic, I relied on demographic statistics of the Czech Statistical Office. For comparison, the Czech Republic and other European countries I used data obtained from Eurostat. Own research I carried out a questionnaire on the website Vyplňto.cz.

Kandidátská disertační práce z oblasti asistované reprodukce.