Mutations in SPTBN2, the gene encoding b-III spectrin, give rise to spinocerebellar ataxia type 5 (SCA5), an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease characterized by motor incoordination and cerebellar degeneration. The work reported in this thesis addressed possible mechanisms of disease pathogenesis using genetically modified mice lacking b-III spectrin (b-III-/-) and also investigated the normal function of b-III spectrin through identification of proteins that interact with its amino-terminus. Targeted recombination was successful in eliminating expression of full-length b-III spectrin but b-III spectrin lacking exons 2-6 ( 2-6 b-III spectrin) was found to be present at a low level in b-III-/- spectrin mice. To ascertain whether the novel truncated protein had any obvious gain-of-function or adverse property that would complicate analysis of b-III-/- spectrin mice the aberrant transcript 2-6 b-III spectrin was cloned and a number of in vitro experiments carried out. Protein stability, solubility, cellular localization, and functional assays indicated 2-6 b-III spectrin was less functional than full-length b-III spectrin, confirming the b-III-/- spectrin mouse could be considered a functional knockout. Analysis of b-III-/- spectrin mice revealed that from 18-weeks of age hind limb gait became progressively wider than age-matched wild-type (WT) controls and three behavioural tests (stationary rod, rotarod, and elevated beam) demonstrated a progressive impairment in motor performance and coordination. 3-week old b-III-/- spectrin mice performed worse on the rotating rod than age-matched controls but their performance at 3- and 5-rpm improved with consecutive days of testing. Only at 10-rpm did young b-III-/- spectrin mice fail to improve, whereas 6-month old b-III-/- spectrin mice were unable to stay on the rod even at 3-rpm. The ability to balance on a stationary rod was also worse at 6-months of age and the number of hindlimb slips made by b-III-/- spectrin mice on the elevated beam increased from 12-weeks of age. This progressive motor phenotype mirrors symptoms seen in SCA5 patients. In contrast heterozygous mice (b-III+/-) were shown not to develop an ataxic phenotype or display cerebellar degeneration, even at 2-years of age. Cell culture studies using one mutation (L253P) associated with SCA5 revealed that it interfered with protein trafficking from the Golgi apparatus and had a dominant-negative effect on WT function. Incubation at a lower temperature resulted in L253P b-III spectrin reaching the plasma membrane suggesting an altered protein conformation was responsible for the protein trafficking defect. The intracellular accumulation of proteins at the Golgi did not initiate the unfolded protein response. From this work it was concluded that the b-III-/- spectrin mouse is a new model of cerebellar ataxia and loss of b-III spectrin function underlies SCA5 pathogenesis. The results argued against haploinsufficiency and instead suggested disease-causing mutations have dominantnegative effects on WT function and indicate a deficit of cell membrane proteins could participate in SCA5 pathogenesis. Finally, using a yeast two-hybrid screen the amino terminus of b-III spectrin was found to interact with the carboxy-terminus of prosaposin (a neurotrophic factor) and clathrin light chain. The interactions were confirmed in mammalian cells suggesting neurite outgrowth and movement of membrane vesicles may be normal functions of b-III spectrin.

No description available.

Orientador: Lineu Cesar Werneck / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor de Ciencias da Saúde, Programa de Pós-Graduaçao em Medicina Interna. Defesa: Curitiba, 2004 / Inclui bibliografia

Orientadores: Iscia Lopes Cendes, Anamarli Nucci / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-12T09:01:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 FrancaJunior_MarcondesCavalcante_D.pdf: 2508603 bytes, checksum: 7aaebc55cfad4e78c5723f324d24e71a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: A ataxia espinocerebelar tipo 3 ou doença de Machado-Joseph (SCA3/DMJ) é a ataxia autossômica dominante mais freqüente em nosso meio e tem como causa a expansão anormal do tripleto (CAG) no 10º éxon do gene MJD1 situado no cromossomo 14q. Trata-se de uma doença neurológica crônica e incapacitante cuja principal manifestação é a ataxia cerebelar, usualmente associada a disfunções piramidais, extra-piramidais, alterações da motilidade ocular extrínseca e neuropatia periférica (NP). Habitualmente, ocorre o envolvimento de múltiplas populações neuronais, tanto no sistema nervoso central (SNC) quanto periférico (SNP). No entanto, o envolvimento dos nervos periféricos na SCA3/DMJ apesar de freqüente e descrito previamente, é ainda pouco estudado. Nesse contexto, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi estudar o envolvimento do SNP na SCA3/DMJ, com o intuito específico de estimar a relevância de suas repercussões clínicas, determinar seus fatores causais e caracterizar sua história natural. Inicialmente, investigamos manifestações habituais em enfermidades do SNP mas pouco exploradas na SCA3/DMJ, como dor, câimbras e fasciculações,além de queixas de disautonomia. Em uma coorte de 70 indivíduos com SCA3/DMJ, encontramos dor crônica em 47% dos pacientes, na maior parte das vezes de padrão músculo-esquelético. Entretanto, a disfunção periférica também foi um fator associado a esse sintoma já que dois casos apresentaram dor de padrão neuropático em associação com neuropatia sensitiva. Em seguida, direcionamos atenção às câimbras e fasciculações. Estas também foram manifestações comuns na doença, identificadas em 82% e 50% dos pacientes, respectivamente. As câimbras eram, em muitos casos, uma queixa significativa, dificultando o sono e o trabalho. A presença de NP esteve intimamente relacionada com o surgimento de fasciculações, mas aparentemente não com as câimbras. Entretanto, ambas estiveram associadas com anormalidades da excitabilidade dos motoneurônios, expressas por alterações nos parâmetros das ondas F e do reflexo H. Tal fato possivelmente está relacionado com os bons resultados que obtivemos no tratamento das câimbras mediante o uso da carbamazepina, um bloqueador de canais iônicos. Sintomas disautonômicos foram relatados com freqüência na SCA3/DMJ, em particular aqueles relacionados com os sistemas urogenital e sudomotor. O estudo da resposta simpática cutânea mostrou-se um bom instrumento para identificar pacientes com disautonomia significativa. Nesse grupo em particular, verificamos uma maior proporção de pacientes com fenótipo "parkinsoniano" e "neuropático". O próximo passo foi estabelecer o padrão de acometimento do SNP e sua evolução utilizando estudo de eletroneuromiografia (ENMG). NP foi diagnosticada em 54% dos pacientes com SCA3/DMJ; alguns com envolvimento exclusivamente sensitivo, outros sensitivo-motor e poucos exclusivamente motor. As anormalidades neurofisiológicas são compatíveis com uma dupla neuronopatia, afetando motoneurônios alfa e células ganglionares. No estudo pospectivo, verificamos que a neuropatia é um fenômeno idade-dependente na SCA3/DMJ, mas a progressão é mais rápida naqueles indivíduos com maior alelo expandido. De maneira contrária, verificamos que a progressão da ataxia cerebelar não está associada ao tamanho do alelo expandido, mas à idade de início. Isto sugere que os determinantes da progressão da NP e da ataxia possam ser diferentes. Em nossa amostra, o tamanho do alelo expandido foi responsável por quase 70% da variabilidade na idade de início da doença. Como descrito, ele também contribuiu para a evolução da NP, mas seu efeito ficou em torno de 40%. Portanto, outros fatores possivelmente genéticos também devem modificar o fenótipo na SCA3/DMJ. Averigüamos o efeito de dois possíveis candidatos, o alelo normal e a co-chaperona C-terminal heat shock protein 70-interacting protein (CHIP), em modelos de regressão com múltiplas variáveis utilizando a idade de início como dependente. Não observamos efeito que pudesse ser atribuído a proteína CHIP; entretanto, o alelo normal parece oferecer uma pequena, mas significativa contribuição para a determinação da idade de início (cerca de 2%). Resta definir se este efeito estende-se a outros elementos do fenótipo, como a expressão de NP. / Abstract: Machado-Joseph disease or spinocerebellar ataxia 3 (SCA3/MJD) is the most frequent autosomal dominant ataxia in Brazil and caused by an unstable trinucleotide (CAG) repeat expansion in the 10th exon of the MJD1 gene on chromosome 14q. It is a chronic and debilitating neurologic disorder characterized by cerebellar ataxia, pyramidal dysfunction, dystonia, gaze abnormalities and peripheral neuropathy. Different types of neurons both in the central and peripheral nervous system are usually damaged in the disease. Although there are previous reports of peripheral involvement in patients with SCA3/MJD, there are still many unanswered questions. Therefore, we have designed this study aiming to evaluate the damage to the peripheral nervous system in SCA3/MJD, with especial emphasis on its clinical relevance, causative factors and natural history. We first looked at manifestations typically found in peripheral neuropathies, such as pain, muscle cramps, fasciculations, and disautonomia, but frequently overlooked in SCA3/MJD. In a cohort of 70 individuals with SCA3/MJD, we found chronic pain in 47% of patients, most of them with musculoskeletal characteristics. Peripheral dysfunction was also a contributing factor since at least two patients reported neuropathic pain in association with a predominantly sensory polyneuropathy. We then assessed muscle cramps and fasciculations and found that these were also common complaints, present in 82% and 50% of patients, respectively. Cramps were often a major complaint, disturbing sleep or work hours. We reported positive results with carbamazepine in the treatment of cramps in patients with SCA3/MJD. Peripheral neuropathy was clearly related to fasciculations, but not to muscle cramps. However, both manifestations were associated to abnormal excitability of motor neurons, as expressed by F-wave and H-reflex responses. Dysautonomia was another typical feature of patients with SCA3/MJD, and symptoms related to genitourinary and sudomotor systems were particularly frequent. Sympathetic skin response proved to be useful in the screening of patients with severe dysautonomia. We found higher proportions of patients with either "parkinsonian"or "neuropathic" phenotypes among those with severe autonomic impairment. In addition, we used nerve conductions studies and electromyography to determine the pattern of damage to the peripheral nervous system and its course over the time. We showed that overall 54% of patients with SCA3/MJD had peripheral neuropathy. Some of those had exclusive sensory impairment, others sensory-motor, and a few restricted motor involvement. The neurophysiological studies showed that the peripheral neuropathy in SCA3/MJD resembles a double neuronopathy, involving alpha motor neurons and dorsal root ganglia. Prospective data indicate that the peripheral involvement is mostly age-dependent, but progression is faster in individuals with larger (CAG) expansions. By contrast, progression of ataxia was mostly driven by age at onset, rather than length of expanded (CAG) repeat. These findings suggest that the determinants of damage to peripheral and cerebellar neurons may be different. The length of the expanded (CAG) allele explained roughly 70% of the variability in age at onset of the disease. As reported previously, it also contributes to progression of peripheral neuropathy, but this effect is small (40%). Therefore, other factors could exist, possibly genetic factors, which could influence the phenotypic variability in SCA3/MJD. We tested two potential genetic factors as candidates, the normal allele and the gene for the co-chaperone CHIP. We used regression models with age at onset as the dependent variable in the statistical analysis. We failed to show any modulating effect due to the protein CHIP. Nevertheless, the normal allele had a small, but significant contribution to variability in age at onset (about 2%). It remains to be determined whether this effect extends to other aspects of the phenotype, such as the peripheral damage. / Doutorado / Neurologia / Doutor em Ciências Médicas

Orientador : Iscia T. Lopes-Cendes / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-03T05:12:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Camargo_MariaFranciscaAboinGomes_M.pdf: 3534931 bytes, checksum: e4a2a3fd9ac89defea2b3ec440bc4c3e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2002 / Resumo: As ataxias espinocerebelares (AEC) formam um grupo heterogêneo de doenças degenerativas do sistema nervoso central, caracterizadas por degeneração do cerebelo e suas vias aferentes e eferentes. Clinicamente, a maior parte dos pacientes com AEC apresentam alterações do equilíbrio e disartria, que evoluem de forma progressiva. As AEC autossômicas dominantes se iniciam normalmente na idade adulta. Até o momento, existem 16 loci mapeados para as formas dominantes de AEC: tipo 1 (SCA1) no cromossomo (cr) 6p, tipo 2 (SCA2) no cr 12q, tipo 3 ou doença de Machado-Joseph (SCA3/MJD) no cr 14q, tipo 4 (SCA4) no cr 16q, tipo 5 (SCA5) na região centromérica do cr 11, tipo 6 (SCA6) no cr 19p, tipo 7 (SCA7) no cr 3p, tipo 8 (SCA8) no cr 13q, tipo 10 (SCA10) no cr 22q, tipo 11 (SCAll) no cr 15q, tipo 12 (SCA12) no cr 5q, tipo 13 (SCA13) no cr 19q, tipo 14 (SCA 14) no cr 19q, tipo 16 (SCA 16) no cr 8q, tipo 17 (SCA 17) na região TATA- box da proteína e a atrofia dentatorubropalidoluisiana (DRPLA) no cr 12p. Em sete formas autossômicas dominantes, cujos genes já foram identificados (SCA1, SCA2, SCA3/MJD, SCA6, SCA7, SCA12 e DRPLA), a expansão de trinuc1eotídeo CAG localizada na região codificadora dos genes, foi identificada como a mutação responsável pela neurodegeneração, já na SCA8 a mutação respónsavel é uma repetição do trinuc1eotídeo CTG. Algumas evidências experimentais apontam para um ganho específico de função que levaria a toxicidade neuronal nas doenças causadas pela expansão do trinuc1eotídeos CAG. O objetivo principal deste projeto de pesquisa foi a determinação da frequência e das características moleculares das mutações responsáveis pelas diferentes formas de AEC em uma amostra da população brasileira. Cento e sessenta e três indivíduos com ataxia espinocerebelar progressiva foram analisados clinicamente e as amostras de sangue periférico foram coletados para os estudos moleculares. Os 163 pacientes pertenciam a 123 famílias não relacionadas entre si. O DNA genômico foi extraído de cada indivíduo e as amostras foram genotipadas pela técnica da PCR utilizando pares de "primer" que flanqueiam as regiões adjacentes aos tripletos expandidos encontrados nos genes SCA1, SCA2, SCA3/DMJ, SCA6, SCA 7, SCA8 e DRPLA. Os produtos da PCR foram submetidos a eletroforese em géis de sequenciamento por aproximadamente 3 horas. A leitura dos alelos foi por auto-radiografia após 3 diasd de exposição a filmes de raio-X. Na amostra de 123 famílias encontraram-se: 7 indivíduos portadores da mutação SCAJ (5%),2 indivíduos portadores da mutação SCA2 (2%), 52 indivíduos portadores da mutação SCA3/DMJ (32%) e 2 indivíduos portadores das mutação SCA7 (2%). Não se encontrou nenhum indivíduo portador das mutações: SCA6, SCA8, DRPLA. Observa-se que na população estudada a forma mais ftequente de AEC é causada pela mutação SCA3/DMJ. Nesse estudo foi também importante para estabelecer quais as AEC autossômicas dominantes mais ftequentes em nosso meio e assim orientar o diagnóstico clínico e molecular / Abstract: The spinoeerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a clinieally and genetieally heterogeneous group of late onset neurodegenerative disorders. Clinieally this group of diseases is earaeterized by eerebellar dysfuetion manifested by gait and limb ataxia, incoordination and dysarthria. There are a total of sixteen loei for autosomal dominant SCAs deseribed: spinoeerebellar ataxia type I (SCA1) on ehromosome (eh) 6p, spinoeerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2) on eh 12q, spinoeerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3) or Maehado- Joseph disease (MJD) on eh 14q, spinoeerebellar ataxia type 4 (SCA4) on ch 16q, spinoeerebellar ataxia type 5 (SCA5) on the eentromerie region of eh 11, spinoeerebellar ataxia type 6 (SCA6) on eh 19p, spinoeerebellar ataxia type 7 (SCA7) on eh 3p, spinocerebellar ataxia type 8 (SCA8) on eh 13q, spinoeerebellar ataxia type 10 (SCA10) on eh 22q, spinoeerebellar ataxia type 11 (SCAll) on ch 15q, spinocerebellar ataxia type 12 (SCAI2) on ch 5q, spinoeerebellar ataxia type 13 (SCA13) on eh 19q, spinoeerebellar ataxia type 14 (SCAI4) on eh 19q, spinoeerebellar ataxia type 16 (SCAI6) on eh 8q, spinocerebellar ataxia type 17 (SCAI7) on the region ofTATA- box protein and dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA) on ch 12p. Are eight different genes causing autosomal dominant SCA have been mapped: SCAl, SCA2, SCA3/MJD, SCA6, SCA 7, SCA12 and DRPLA eaused by expansions of an unstable CAG repeat loealized in the eoding region of causative genes. SCA8 is eaused by expansions of an unstable CTG repeat. The frequeney of SCAl, SCA2, SCA3/MJD, SCA6, SCA7, SCA8 and DRPLA in brazilian patients and to compare their molecular and clinical charaeteristies for SCAs mutations. One hundred and sixty three individuaIs were genotyped in this study. Of 163 individuaIs belonging to 123 unrelated families. Genomie DNA was isolated from peripheral blood leukoeytes. Polymerase elain reaetion (PCR) amplieation of the CAG repeat and CTG repeat. PCR products we separated in eletrophoresis on 6% denaturing polyaerylamide gels. Polyaerylamide gels we transfered into Hybond H+ nylon membranes and hybridized with an a 32p 3'- end- labeled (CAG)n probe. Were determined allele by eomparing migration relative to an M13 sequeneing ladder and used as positive and negative eontrols in a1l analyses. Of the 123 famiIies studied: 7 positive individuaIs ofthe SCAl mutation (5%),2 positive individuaIs ofthe SCA2 mutation (2%),52 positive individuaIs ofthe SCA3/MJD mutation (32%) and 2 positive individuaIs ofthe SCA7 mutation (2%). We found no SCA6, SCA7, DRPLA and SCA8 mutations. The &equency of SCA3/MJD is substantially higher than that of SCAl, SCA2 and SCA 7 in individuaIs with SCAs / Mestrado / Ciencias Biomedicas / Mestre em Ciências Médicas

Ataxia telangiectasia: Identifizierung und Charakterisierung nicht-konservativer Spleißmutationen und deren Auswirkungen im ATM-Gen. Ein hoher Anteil der bisher im ATM-Gen identifizierten Mutationen (>350, www.vmresearch.org/atm.htm) stellt Deletionen oder Insertionen direkt an den Exongrenzen dar; viele dieser Aberrationen wurden allerdings nur auf cDNA-Ebene detektiert. Sollte es sich hierbei in den meisten Fällen um Mutationen an den Spleiß-Konsensussequenzen handeln, läge der Anteil der Spleißmutationen im ATM-Gen beträchtlich höher (~35 Prozent) als in anderen betroffenen Genen (~15 Prozent). Um der Frage nachzugehen, ob im ATM-Primärtranskript aufgrund einer erhöhten Labilität gegenüber Spleißmutationen auch Veränderungen weniger konservierter Positionen innerhalb der Donor- oder Akzeptor-Spleißstellen zu aberrantem Spleißen führen, wurden 20 AT-Zellinien mittels „Protein Truncation Test“ nach Deletionen oder Insertionen an den Exongrenzen durchsucht. Die 7 neu identifizierten Spleißmutationen wurden anschließend unter Verwendung eines „Splice Scoring“- Systems näher charakterisiert, die Penetranz der jeweiligen Mutation durch semiquantitative PCR evaluiert und die Auswirkungen auf Proteinebene durch Western Blotting überprüft. Obwohl nur eine der 7 neu identifizierten Spleißmutationen eine schwächer konservierte Position der Spleißsequenzen betraf, konnten im Rahmen einer Kooperation mit der Medizinischen Hochschule Hannover (Arbeitsgruppe Dr. T. Dörk) weitere Spleißmutationen an den Intronpositionen +3, +5 und -6 identifiziert werden, die ebenfalls in völlig aberrantem Spleißen resultieren. Daten weiterer Arbeitsgruppen lassen vermuten, daß tatsächlich ~ 50 Prozent aller Spleißaberrationen im ATM-Gen auf Mutationen außerhalb der konservierten Dinukleotidbereiche (gt und ag) zurückführen sind. Nijmegen Breakage Syndrom (NBS): Suche nach Genen, die einen NBS-ähnlichen Phänotyp auslösen. Über 90 Prozent aller NBS-Patienten tragen Mutationen im NBS1-Gen, dessen Translationsprodukt im Komplex mit MRE11 und RAD50 eine zentrale Rolle in DNA-DSB-Reparatur und Zellzykluskontrolle spielt. Weitere Mutationen bei Patienten mit NBS-ähnlichem Phänotyp wurden im Gen der DNA-Ligase IV identifiziert, die zusammen mit weiteren Angehörigen des NHEJ-Reparaturweges (XRCC4, DNA-PKcs, Ku70, Ku80) ebenfalls in DNA-DSB-Reparatur involviert ist. Zellen von Patienten mit NBS-ähnlichem Phänotyp wurden daher durch direkte Sequenzierung und/oder Western Blotting auf Defekte in den oben genannten Genen/Proteinen untersucht. In einem parallel durchgeführten unabhängigen Mutationsscreening (Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Arbeitsgruppe Dr. T. Dörk) wurden in Fibroblasten einer Patientin mit NBS-ähnlichem Phänotyp Mutationen im RAD50-Gen identifiziert. Die Auswirkungen der RAD50-Defizienz auf die zelluläre Lokalisation der beiden Komplexpartner NBS1 und MRE11 sowie deren Fähigkeit zur Focibildung nach DNA-Schädigung wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durch Immunfluoreszenzstudien untersucht: während NBS1 vorwiegend nukleäre Lokalisation aufwies, war MRE11 zu etwa gleichen Anteilen zwischen Nukleus und Zytoplasma verteilt; beide Proteine waren nach Bestrahlung der Zellen nicht mehr zur Focibildung fähig. Da in MRE11-defizienten Zellen keine nukleäre NBS1-Lokalisation beobachtet wird, scheint der Kerntransport des NBS1 von funktionellem MRE11, nicht aber von RAD50 abhängig zu sein. Fanconi Anämie (FA): Untersuchung einer möglichen Verbindung zwischen den FA-Proteinen und der RAD51-Familie. FA-Zellen aller bisher bekannter Komplementationsgruppen zeichnen sich durch Hypersensitivität gegenüber DNA-„interstrand crosslinks“ (ICLs) aus, zu deren Behebung u.a. die homologe Rekombinationsreparatur (HRR) eingesetzt wird, bei der das RAD51(A)-Protein eine zentrale Rolle spielt. Aufgrund schwacher Homologien werden 5 weitere Proteine (RAD51B, C, D, XRCC2 und 3) der RAD51-Familie zugeordnet. Da Knockout-Zellinien aller RAD51-Familienmitglieder ebenfalls hohe Sensitivität gegenüber ICLs aufweisen, wurde eine mögliche Verbindung zwischen den FA-Proteinen FANCA, C, G und der RAD51-Familie getestet. Unter Verwendung des "Yeast Two Hybrid" (Y2H)-Systems konnten zunächst mehrere Interaktionen zwischen FA- und RAD51-Proteinen detektiert werden. Zur Bestätigung einer funktionellen Verbindung wurden die FA- und RAD51-Proteine in humanen 293-Zellen überexprimiert. Aufgrund der focibildenden Eigenschaften des RAD51-Proteins wurden die FA-Proteine und die RAD51-Familie auf Focibildung nach DNA-Schädigung sowie etwaige Kolokalisationen getestet; mögliche physikalische Interaktionen wurden durch Koimmunpräzipitationsstudien überprüft. Die RAD51-Familie zeigten keinerlei Focibildung nach DNA-Schädigung während die FA-Proteine in einigen Experimenten eine Lokalisation in nukleäre Foci zeigten, die sich jedoch in Größe und Homogenität deutlich von denen klassischer DNA-Reparaturfoci unterschieden und nicht mit RAD51 kolokalisierten. Die häufige Beschränkung der FA-Foci auf Bereiche besonders dicht gepackten Chromatins kann möglicherweise als weiterer Hinweis auf die postulierte Rolle der FA-Proteine bei Chromatin Remodelling Mechanismen interpretiert werden. Bei Überexpression in HEK293-Zellen konnte keine der im Y2H-System identifizierten Interaktionen zwischen FA- und RAD51-Proteinen durch Koimmunpräzipitationen detektiert werden. Dennoch erscheinen seit der Identifizierung des FANCD2, das durch den FA-Komplex aktiviert wird und mit dem RAD51-Interaktor BRCA1 in nukleäre Foci kolokalisiert, weitere Untersuchungen einer Verknüpfung der FA-Proteine mit den Angehörigen des HRR-Weges durchaus sinnvoll. / Ataxia telangiectasia: Identification and characterization of mutations at non-conserved splice positions within the ATM gene. Since the identification of ATM, more than 350 different mutations have been identified (www.vmresearch.org/atm.htm) with an unusual frequency of exon skipping or deletions/insertions at the exon boundaries. Although in many studies only the observed aberrations in cDNA were reported, they presumably represent splice mutations. These findings suggest that the rate of splicing defects in the ATM gene may be substantially higher than that reported for other human genetic disorders. In order to investigate this phenomenon, we have asked the question whether the high frequency of splice mutations in the ATM gene might be caused by an increased liability of the ATM transcript towards mutations at less conserved positions within the splice site consensus sequences. Mutation screening of 20 AT cell lines using the protein truncation test revealed 10 different splice mutations, seven of which had not been reported previously. A splice scoring system was used to estimate the penetrance of each mutation. Potentially leaky splicing was evaluated by semiquantitative PCR. The implications of each mutation on the protein level were investigated by western blotting. One out of seven new splice mutations was positioned at a less conserved consensus site. Furthermore, in cooperation with the Medizinische Hochschule Hannover (group of Dr. T. Doerk), point mutations at intron positions +3, +5 and –6 were identified, each resulting in completely aberrant splicing. In addition, there is accumulating evidence from other studies that indeed ~50 per cent of splice mutations in the ATM gene are positioned outside the highly conserved donor or acceptor dinucleotides, gt or ag, respectively. Nijmegen breakage syndrome (NBS): Search for genetic defects resulting in an NBS- or NBS-like phenotype. More than 90 per cent of NBS patients carry mutations in the NBS1 gene. The NBS1 protein, in a complex with MRE11 and RAD50, is known to be involved in DNA DSB repair via NHEJ and cell cycle control. In cells from patients with an NBS-like phenotype, defects in another component of the NHEJ pathway, DNA ligase IV, have been identified very recently. Therefore, mutation screening in genes known to be involved in NHEJ (NBS1, MRE11, RAD50, DNA ligase IV, XRCC4, DNA-PKcs, Ku70, Ku80) was carried out in cell lines from NBS-like patients using direct sequencing and/or western blotting. In one of these cell lines, an independently performed screening at the Medizinische Hochschule Hannover (group of Dr. T. Doerk) revealed two mutant alleles of the RAD50 gene. In the present work, the cellular RAD50-deficient phenotype was characterized in response to induced DNA damage. In contrast to normal controls, the RAD50-deficient fibroblasts were not able to form IR-induced foci. Localization of NBS1 was still predominantly nuclear, whereas MRE11 was distributed equally between nucleus and cytoplasm. In contrast, MRE11-deficient cells do not show much nuclear localization for NBS1, suggesting that the nuclear localization of NBS1 depends on functional MRE11, but not on the presence of RAD50. Fanconi anemia (FA): Are the FA proteins linked to DNA DSB repair via the RAD51 family? FA cells of all complementation groups are hypersensitive towards DNA interstrand crosslinks (ICLs). Removal of ICLs includes the generation of a DNA DSB. Their repair is then presumably carried out by the homologous recombination (HRR) pathway, an essential component of which is the RAD51 protein. Due to weak homologies five other proteins have been assigned to the RAD51 family (RAD51B, C, D, XRCC2 and 3). Strikingly, knockout mutants of all RAD51 paralogs also show high sensitivity to ICL-inducing agents. In order to investigate a possible connection between the FA pathway and the RAD51 family, the yeast two-hybrid system was used to test for any interactions between the FA proteins FANCA, C, G and the RAD51 family members. Several interactions were detected. Further characterization was done by study of nuclear foci and immunoprecipitation. FA and RAD51 proteins were overexpressed in human 293 cells. Since RAD51 localizes into nuclear foci after DNA damage, FA proteins and RAD51 paralogs were tested for their ability to (co-) localize into nuclear foci after MMC-treatment. Whereas none of the RAD51 paralogs showed nuclear foci formation, in some experiments FA proteins moved into nuclear speckles following DNA damage. However, size and homogeneity of DNA damage-induced FA speckles was quite different from those formed by „classical“ DNA repair proteins; in addition, no colocalization was seen with foci containing RAD51. Notably, FA speckles were often restricted to sites of very tightly packed chromatin, again suggesting a role of the FA-proteins in chromatin remodelling mechanisms. To identify any physical interaction between FA proteins and the RAD51 family, coimmunoprecipitation studies (Co-IPs) were carried out, after overexpression in HEK293 cells. Whereas the reported interaction between FANCA and FANCG could repeatedly be shown, no Co-IP was detected for any combination of an FA protein with a member of the RAD51 family. However, since the identification of FANCD2, a connection between the FA pathway and RAD51 seems all the more plausible: following DNA damage FANCD2 colocalizes with BRCA1, which itself is closely associated with RAD51. Further studies will be necessary in order to unravel the way by which the FA proteins might interact with conserved DNA repair mechanisms like the HRR pathway.

Friedreich’s ataxia (FRDA) is an autosomal recessive inherited disorder affecting approximately 1 every 40,000 individuals in Western Europe, is characterized by progressive gait and limb ataxia, dysarthria, areflexia, loss of vibratory and position sense, and a progressive weakness of central origin. Additional features particularly include an hypertrophic cardiomyopathy that can cause premature death. A large GAA repeat expansion in the first intron of the FXN gene is the most common mutation underlying FRDA. Patients show severely reduced levels of the FXN-encoded mitochondrial protein frataxin. Frataxin function is not yet completely elucidated. In frataxin deficiency conditions abnormalities of iron metabolism occur: decreased activities of iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) containing proteins, accumulation of iron in mitochondria and depletion in the cytosol, enhanced cellular iron uptake, and, in some models, reduced heme synthesis. Evidence of oxidative stress has also been found in most though not all models of frataxin deficiency. Accordingly, yfh1-deficient yeast and cells from FRDA patients are highly sensitive to oxidants. Respiratory chain dysfunction further aggravate oxidative stress by increasing leakage of electrons and the formation of superoxide. Frataxin deficient cells not only generate more free radicals, but, they also show a reduced ability to mobilize antioxidant defenses, in particular to induce superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) isoform-gamma play a key role in numerous cellular functions and is a key regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis and of the ROS metabolism. Recruitment of the PPAR coactivator-1a (PGC-1a) mediates many effects of the PPAR-γ activation. In a first work we assessed the potential beneficial effects of a potent PPAR-gamma agonist on frataxin expression in primary fibroblasts from healthy controls and FRDA patients, and Neuroblastoma cells. We used the APAF molecule (1-0-hexadecyl-2-azelaoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocoline; C33H66NO9P). Our results show that this compound is able to increase frataxin amount both at transcriptional and post-transcriptional level. At a dose of 20µM frataxin mRNA significantly increases in both controls (p=0.03) and FRDA patients (p=0.002) fibroblasts (1). The finding was confirmed in Neuroblastoma cells (p=0.042). According to previous publications APAF, as others PPAR-gamma agonists is able to up-regulate PGC-1a transcription. In a second part of the study we investigate the role of the PPAR-gamma/PGC-1a pathway in the pathogenesis of FRDA. We performed a microarray analysis of heart and skeletal muscle in a mouse model of frataxin deficiency and we found molecular evidence of increased lipogenesis in skeletal muscle and alteration of fiber-type composition in heart, consistent with insulin resistance and cardiomyopathy, respectively. Since the PPAR-gamma pathway is known to regulate both processes, we hypothesized that dysregulation of this pathway could play a key role in frataxin deficiency. We confirmed this by showing a coordinate dysregulation of Pgc1a and the transcription factor Srebp1 in cellular and animal models of frataxin deficiency, and in cells from FRDA patients, who have marked insulin resistance. Particularly, PGC-1a was found significantly reduced (2) in primary fibroblasts and lymphocytes from FRDA patients (p<0.05). Furthermore, PGC-1a mRNA levels strongly correlate with frataxin relative mRNA levels (r2=0.9, p<0.001). According to this observation, in C2C12 myoblasts, PGC-1a and a reporter gene under the control of the PGC-1a promoter are rapidly down-regulated (p<0.05) when frataxin expression is inhibited by an shRNA in vitro. To further investigate this relation, we then generate PGC-1a deficient fibroblasts cells using a specific siRNA; at 72 hours of transfection frataxin was found down-regulate (p<0.05) in control cells. Taken together those data indicate that some mechanism directly links an early effect of frataxin deficiency with reduced PGC-1a transcription in this cell type, and presumably in other cells that also down-regulate PGC-1α when frataxin levels are low. Finally, since PGC-1a has also emerged as a key factor in the induction of many antioxidant programs in response to oxidative stress, both in vivo and in vitro, in particular in neurons, we tested whether the PGC-1a down-regulation occurring in FRDA cells could be in part responsible for the blunted antioxidant response observed in frataxin deficiency. Using primary fibroblasts from FRDA patients we found reduced SOD2 levels (p<0.05), according to PGC1 and frataxin reduced levels. Our finding confirm previous publications showing that PGC-1a directly regulate SOD2 levels in vitro and in vivo. We then tested the response to oxidative stress induced by the addition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) at different time and doses. Our data show that H2O2 directly increase PGC-1a and SOD2 levels (p<0.01 and p<0.05) in control cells; no effect was observed in FRDA cells, suggesting a lack in the activation of this response. Moreover, PGC-1α direct silencing, using a specific siRNA, in control fibroblasts led to a similar loss of SOD2 response (p<0.001) to oxidative stress as observed in FRDA fibroblasts, confirming its crucial role in this response (3). We then measured the same parameters after pharmacological manipulations of PGC-1a. PGC-1a activation with the PPAR agonist (Pioglitazone) or with a cAMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK) agonist (AICAR) restored normal SOD2 induction (4) in FRDA cells (p<0.01). In vivo treatment of the KIKO mice (35-40% of wiled-type frataxin) with Pioglitazone significantly up-regulate SOD2 (5) in cerebellum (p<0.01) and spinal cord (p<0.05), two primary affected tissues in patients. The search for experimental drugs increasing the amount of frataxin is a very active and timely area of investigation. In cellular and in animal model systems, the replacement of frataxin function seems to alleviate the symptoms or completely reverts the phenotype. Therefore, drugs that are able to increase directly the amount of frataxin, at least up to the level of an asymptomatic carrier, are attractive candidates for new approaches to the therapy of FRDA. Our findings show (1) that a potent PPAR-gamma agonists can increase frataxin expression. We do also show a regulatory loop between frataxin and PGC-1a. Thus, we suggest that this loop could play a critical role in the pathogenesis of the disease and breaking this loop could help to slow down the pathological phenotype observed in FRDA patients. Particularly, PGC-1α down-regulation (3) is likely to contribute to the blunted antioxidant response observed in cells from FRDA patients. This response can be restored by AMPK and PPAR agonists in vitro (4) and in vivo, as shown by Pioglitazone treatment (5) in a mouse model for the disease. To conclude, our study provide evidences that PPAR-gamma agonists are a potential treatment for Friedreich’s ataxia, consisting with their action on both mitochondrial biogenesis and oxidative stress defenses.

Iron-sulfur clusters are protein cofactors that are critical for all life forms. Elaborate multi-component systems have evolved for the biosynthesis of these cofactors to protect organisms from the toxic effects of free iron and sulfide ions. In eukaryotes, the Fe-S cluster assembly machinery operates in the matrix space of the mitochondria and contains a myriad of proteins that mediate sulfur, iron, and electron transfer to assemble Fe-S clusters on the scaffold protein ISCU2 and then distribute these clusters to target proteins. Our lab has recently described stable 3, and 4-protein complexes composed of the cysteine desulfurase NFS1, the co-chaperone ISD11, and ISCU2 (SDU), and NFS1, ISD11, ISCU2, and FXN (SDUF) subunits. In the latter, SDUF, FXN functions as an allosteric activator switching this assembly complex on for Fe-S cluster biosynthesis. Insufficient expression of the mitochondrial protein FXN leads to a progressive neurodegenerative disease, Friedreich's Ataxia (FRDA). In ~2% of patients, FRDA is caused by one of 15 known missense mutations on one allele accompanied by the GAA repeat on the other leading to a complicated phenotype that includes loss of Fe-S clusters. Here we present in vitro evidence that FRDA FXN variants are deficient in their ability to bind the SDU complex, their ability to stimulate the sulfur transfer reaction from NFS1 to ISCU2, and in their ability to stimulate the rate of cluster assembly on ISCU2. Here, in vitro evidence is presented that FXN accelerates the sulfur transfer reaction from NFS1 to ISCU2. Additionally, we present kinetic evidence that identifies the most buried cysteine residue, C104 on ISCU2 as the sulfur acceptor residue suggesting, FXN stabilizes a conformational change to facilitate sulfur delivery. Subsequent mutational studies suggest FXN binding to SDU results in a helix to coil transition in ISCU2 exposing C104 to accept the persulfide sulfur and thereby accelerating the rate of sulfur transfer. We further provide the first biochemical evidence that the persulfide transferred to ISCU2 from NFS1 is viable in Fe-S cluster formation. In contrast to human FXN, the Escherichia coli FXN homolog CyaY has been reported to inhibit Fe-S cluster biosynthesis. To resolve this discrepancy, a series of inter-species enzyme kinetic experiments were performed. Surprisingly, our results reveal that activation or inhibition by the frataxin homolog is determined by which cysteine desulfurase is present and not by the identity of the frataxin homolog. These data are consistent with a model in which the frataxin-less Fe-S assembly complex exists as a mixture of functional and nonfunctional states, which are stabilized by binding of frataxin homologs. Intriguingly, this appears to be an unusual example in which modifications to an enzyme during evolution inverts or reverses the mode of control imparted by a regulatory molecule.

Friedreich Ataxia (FRDA) is an autosomal recessive degenerative disorder. It is caused by an abnormal expansion of GAA trinucleotide repeats in the first intron of the gene encoding frataxin. Since rates of cell division have been linked to oxidative stress, we have examined several parameters of oxidative stress in a FRDA primary fibroblast cell line that had a dramatically different growth rate. In the FRDA fibroblasts, the high level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) indicated elevated oxidative stress. The elevated glutathione peroxidase (Gpx) activity in the ROS defense system may represent an adaptive response to the high oxidative stress. The increased mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) likely contributed to increased oxidant production, which could be contributed by elevated ROS. This increased oxidant production might be responsible for increased rate of progression through the cell cycle.<p> Furthermore, the elevated oxidative stress is also associated with progressive neural pathology of FRDA. In FRDA, pathology is first seen in the dorsal root ganglia and the dorsal columns of the spinal cord. Due to the abnormal metal distribution seen in the FRDA spinal cord and medulla, we hypothesized that metal binding proteins were abnormally distributed in FRDA. In our FRDA samples, we observed the well established histopathology of FRDA and examined the distribution of some metal binding proteins (frataxin, ferritin and metallothionein) through immunohistochemistry. Our results showed demyelination and loss of axons in the degeneration areas of the two FRDA cases. In addition, we found that the metal binding proteins were abnormally distributed in the FRDA spinal cord and the medulla. The abnormal distributions of the metal binding proteins were characterized by low expressions of iron binding proteins, especially frataxin and cytosolic ferritin, and undetectable expression of the copper and zinc binding protein, metallothionein. In summary, the rapid cell growth is a feature of FRDA fibroblast cell lines. We also tested Gpx activity, measured oxidant levels and determined the MMP in a FRDA primary fibroblast cell line that had a dramatically fast growth rate. The FRDA histopathology studies showed the metal binding proteins including frataxin, ferritin and metallothionein were abnormally distributed in the spinal cord and the medulla.

Friedreich Ataxia (FRDA) is an autosomal recessive degenerative disorder. It is caused by an abnormal expansion of GAA trinucleotide repeats in the first intron of the gene encoding frataxin. Since rates of cell division have been linked to oxidative stress, we have examined several parameters of oxidative stress in a FRDA primary fibroblast cell line that had a dramatically different growth rate. In the FRDA fibroblasts, the high level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) indicated elevated oxidative stress. The elevated glutathione peroxidase (Gpx) activity in the ROS defense system may represent an adaptive response to the high oxidative stress. The increased mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) likely contributed to increased oxidant production, which could be contributed by elevated ROS. This increased oxidant production might be responsible for increased rate of progression through the cell cycle.<p> Furthermore, the elevated oxidative stress is also associated with progressive neural pathology of FRDA. In FRDA, pathology is first seen in the dorsal root ganglia and the dorsal columns of the spinal cord. Due to the abnormal metal distribution seen in the FRDA spinal cord and medulla, we hypothesized that metal binding proteins were abnormally distributed in FRDA. In our FRDA samples, we observed the well established histopathology of FRDA and examined the distribution of some metal binding proteins (frataxin, ferritin and metallothionein) through immunohistochemistry. Our results showed demyelination and loss of axons in the degeneration areas of the two FRDA cases. In addition, we found that the metal binding proteins were abnormally distributed in the FRDA spinal cord and the medulla. The abnormal distributions of the metal binding proteins were characterized by low expressions of iron binding proteins, especially frataxin and cytosolic ferritin, and undetectable expression of the copper and zinc binding protein, metallothionein. In summary, the rapid cell growth is a feature of FRDA fibroblast cell lines. We also tested Gpx activity, measured oxidant levels and determined the MMP in a FRDA primary fibroblast cell line that had a dramatically fast growth rate. The FRDA histopathology studies showed the metal binding proteins including frataxin, ferritin and metallothionein were abnormally distributed in the spinal cord and the medulla.