Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) leads to global warming. This can have several impacts on climate and on plant biodiversity, and has been the topic of many studies. The objective of this thesis was to understand the effects of higher atmospheric CO₂ on soil moisture dynamics in the grasslands of central Minnesota using detailed hydrologic modeling to explain previous experimental observations at the BioCON site, a free-air CO₂ enrichment experiment. The hydraulic properties and texture of soils collected from BioCON were determined in the laboratory through grainsize analysis and continuous evaporative drying to determine soil moisture retention curves and hydraulic conductivities. These results were used as input for numerical soil water flow and energy balance models. The models showed that vegetation presence and atmospheric CO₂ concentrations significantly affected the soil moisture dynamics. Summer evapotranspiration (ET) had a higher variation for bare plots than for vegetated plots. This likely occurred because the vegetation provided a buffer against the variations in weather conditions. Vegetation not only retains part of the precipitation on its leaves, it also retains water in its structure and transpires while carrying out photosynthesis. Higher water content was also seen for the bare plots than for the vegetated soils. For some vegetated plots, there were differences between simulated and observed soil moisture. This could have been caused by a difference in plant composition and could suggest that different plant species can respond differently to varying CO₂ atmospheric concentrations leading to different soil moisture dynamics. In addition to this, smaller ET values and higher soil water content values at vegetated elevated CO₂ conditions than at ambient CO₂ conditions were simulated. This was expected, as higher atmospheric CO₂ is linked to higher plant water efficiency and larger biomass. For the simulations, higher values for stomatal resistance and higher plant and plant residue biomass were used. If increasing CO₂ conditions in fact decreases ET, regional weather patterns could be affected as less ET could delay the speed that water flows through the water cycle. / text

<p>Rising atmospheric CO2 concentration, currently about 390 ppm, causes climate change and is expected to reach 500 ppm or higher this century due to human activities. Soils are the largest terrestrial pool of carbon, and changes in soil carbon storage due to plant and microbial activities could affect atmospheric CO2 levels. This dissertation studies soil carbon and microbial responses to an experimental preindustrial-to-future CO2 gradient (250-515 ppm) in a grassland ecosystem. Two contrasting soil types are studied in the gradient, providing insight on how natural ecosystem variation modifies CO2 effects.</p><p>Although total soil organic carbon (SOC) did not change with CO2 treatment after four growing seasons, fast-cycling SOC pools did respond to CO2, particularly in the black clay soil. Microbial biomass increased 18% and microbial activity increased 30% across the CO2 gradient in the black clay, but neither factor changed with CO2 in the sandy loam. Similarly a one-year laboratory soil incubation showed that a fast-cycling SOC pool increased 75% across the CO2 gradient in the black clay. Size fractionation of SOC showed that coarse POM-C, the youngest and most labile fraction, increased four-fold across the CO2 gradient in the black clay, while it increased 50% across the gradient in the sandy loam. CO2 enrichment in this grassland increased the fast-cycling soil organic carbon pool as in other elevated CO2 studies, but only in the black clay soil.</p><p>CO2 also induced changes in microbial community composition, and we explored the functional consequences in a microcosm experiment. Soil collected in the third growing season of CO2 treatment was used to inoculate Indiangrass seedlings grown in the lab. The elevated CO2 soil inoculum had higher microbial biomass C/N (C/N = 21) than the subambient CO2 soil inoculum (C/N = 16), suggesting a difference in community composition. Mean plant height in elevated CO2 soil inoculum (475 ppm) was 57% greater than in subambient CO2 soil inoculum (300 ppm), but the difference was not statistically significant. Similarly, total leaf N from plants in elevated CO2 soil was 28% greater on average than in subambient CO2 soil, but not significantly different. CO2-induced microbial effects on plant growth were either negligible or occurred at finer microbial taxonomic levels, making them difficult to resolve at the whole-community level.</p><p>Soil fungi decompose soil organic matter, and studying fungal community responses to CO2 could improve our understanding of soil carbon responses. We studied fungal communities in the CO2 gradient using Sanger sequencing and pyrosequencing of rDNA. As in our soil C study, fungal community responses to CO2 were mostly linear, and occurred mostly in the black clay soil. Fungal species richness increased linearly with CO2 treatment in the black clay. The relative abundance of Chytridiomycota (chytrids) increased linearly with CO2 in the black clay, while the relative abundance of Glomeromycota (arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) increased linearly with CO2 in the sandy loam. Increased labile C availability at elevated CO2 and/or decreased inorganic N may explain the increase in fungal species richness and Chytridiomycota abundance in the black clay, while increased P limitation may explain the stimulation of Glomeromycota at elevated CO2 in the sandy loam. Across both soils, fungal species richness increased linearly with soil respiration, an index of decomposition rate (p = 0.01, R2 = 0.46). Adding fungal species may have improved decomposition efficiency, but it is also possible that species richness and decomposition increased due to another factor such as C quantity. Soil type strongly structured both fungal community and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal community composition.</p><p>Together, these studies suggest that soil C and fungal community responses to CO2 were mostly linear, and were most apparent in the black clay soil. Soil type strongly influenced fungal community composition as well as which phyla responded to CO2. Therefore, soil type could be a useful addition to predictions of soil carbon and microbial responses to future CO2 levels.</p> / Dissertation

O enriquecimento da atmosfera com CO2, produto principalmente das atividades humanas, e a consequênte elevação na temperatura ambiente têm se revelado como importantes fatores que afetam a produtividade das plantas. Hymenaea courbaril L. é uma espécie classificada como secundária tardia no processo de sucessão, de reconhecida importância ecológica por sua ampla distribuição ao longo das Américas. Esta árvore tem sido usada como planta modelo no estudo da mobilização de carboidratos de reserva de parede celular de cotilédones, no estudo das respostas de espécies do Neotrópico às elevadas concentrações de CO2, entre outras pesquisas. É conhecido que em jatobá a mobilização de XG de reserva é conduzida primeiramente às folhas em desenvolvimento. Às elevadas temperaturas favorecem o processo de mobilização. Também é sabido que as elevadas concentrações de CO2 diminuem a mobilização de XG dos cotilédones na fase de pós-germinação. O enfoque deste trabalho foi direcionado ao estudo do desenvolvimento inicial de plantas de jatobá e à compreensão dos processos fisiológicos e do metabolismo de carbono envolvidos nas respostas de plantas juvenis às elevadas concentrações de CO2 e à eT. Com esta pesquisa foi evidenciado que estes fatores se associam sinergicamente e favorecem o desenvolvimento de plantas juvenis de jatobá, acelerando o amadurecimento das folhas de enverdecimento tardio através de um maior e mais rápido acúmulo de clorofilas. Tal interação também parece anular a amortização da mobilização de XG e a aclimatação da fotossíntese, promovidos pelas eCO2. No presente estudo também foi evidenciado que as elevadas concentrações de CO2 favorecem as taxas de assimilação de CO2 e à produção de carboidratos não estruturais, como amido. As elevadas temperaturas aceleram o metabolismo das plantas de jatobá, sendo que o aumento no metabolismo depende do conteúdo de carboidratos. As eT favorecem a síntese de Sac, diminuem a produção de amido, portanto, diminuem a razão Amido/Sac à noite. A estratégia metabólica de jatobá reduziria a sensação por parte da hexoquinase do fluxo de hexoses, com o que se atenuaria o abatimento da síntese de enzimas da fotossíntese (aclimatação da fotossíntese). O desenvolvimento inicial de plantas de jatobá permitiu identificar duas fases de crescimento, que estão determinadas pelas suas fontes e reservas de carbono. A primeira fase é de crescimento linear, e conta com os carboidratos produto da mobilização de XG, a fotossíntese e um enorme armazenamento de amido no caule, este último usado possivelmente como fonte complementaria de carbono para a planta até o completo amadurecimento do sistema fotossintetizante. A segunda fase é de estabilização do crescimento, uma vez que são esgotadas as reservas de amido do caule. Neste ponto, a força do dreno de crescimento diminui e aumenta o acúmulo de amido nas folhas completamente expandidas. Considerando-se as estratégias adaptativas de jatobá, em ausência de estresse hídrico, as condições ambientais de e CO2 até 760ppm e eT até 3°C promovem o crescimento de plantas juvenis de H. courbaril. / The continuous rise in anthropogenic CO2 concentration has the potential to lead to an approximate 3°C increase in temperature worldwide and these is thought as being important factors that affect the plants productivity and distribution. Hymenaea courbaril L., jatobá, is a late-successional species that is recognized by its ecological importance and by their distribution from central America to the south of Brazil. This plant species has been used as a model for the studies of cell wall storage carbohydrates mobilization, as well as for the studies of Neotropic species responses to enrichment CO2 atmosphere. It is known that XG mobilization products are driven primarily to expanding leaves. Elevated temperatures promote this mobilization process. In the present work, he initial development of seedlings of Hymenaea courbaril was investigated in order to understand aspects of physiological bevavior and carbon metabolism under elevated CO2 concentrations (e CO2) and/or elevated temperature (eT, +3°C). The results showed that the e CO2 and eT, when associated, actively improved H. courbaril L. young plants development, promoting the maturation of its delayed greening leaves with a higher and a faster chlorophyll accumulation. Such interaction seems to block the reduction of XG mobilization and the photosynthesis acclimation, previously observed to be promoted by the elevated CO2 atmosphere. It was observed that eCO2 increases net assimilation CO2 rates and the non structural carbohydrates production, like starch. Elevated temperatures improved the metabolism in general and this seems to depend on the carbohydrates status. Elevated temperatures enhanced the sucrose synthesis, diminished the starch production, and the starch/sucrose ratio during the night. The metabolic features observed for Hymenaea courbaril are likely to be associated he sugar sensing mechanism, which reduces the photosynthetic enzymes synthesis reduction (photosynthesis acclimation). The jatobas initial development showed two phases determined by its storage compounds in the cotyledons. The first is a linear growth period during which XG mobilization, photosynthesis and a high starch level is stored in the stem, the latter possibly used as a supplementary carbon source until photosynthesis is fully established. The second phase is growth stabilization, once the stem starch reserves are utilized. At that point, the growth sink forces diminish and consequently an increased concentration of starch is obseved in the completed expanded leaves. Considering those strategies, without water stress, the conditions of elevated CO2 and elevated temperature promote growth of young H. courbaril plants.

L’objectif principal de cette thèse était de comprendre la variabilité millénaire du CO2 atmosphérique durant le stade isotopique marin 6 (Marine Isotope Stage 6, MIS 6), l’avant dernière période glaciaire (185-135 ka BP). Durant la première partie de la période MIS 6 (185-160 ka BP), 6 oscillations climatiques millénaires peuvent être observées dans des indicateurs de la température antarctique, du phénomène de bascule bipolaire dans la région Atlantique Nord et de l’intensité des moussons des basses latitudes. Un cycle hydrologique intensifié et des vêlages d’iceberg dans l’Atlantique Nord pourraient avoir impacté la circulation atlantique méridionale de retournement (Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, AMOC) durant MIS 6 (Margari et al., 2010). La reconstruction de CO2 atmosphérique à partir des carottes antarctiques peut fournir des informations clés sur le lien entre CO2 atmosphérique et variabilité climatique millénaire. Cependant, les enregistrements existants du CO2 à partir de la carotte de glace de Vostok ne montrent pas de variabilité millénaire du fait de trop mauvaises résolution et précision.Pour examiner comment le CO2 atmosphérique est lié avec le changement climatique sur les échelles de temps millénaires pendant le MIS 6, nous avons analysé 150 échantillons de CO2 atmosphérique obtenus à partir de la carotte EPICA Dome C (EDC) sur la période 189.4-135.4 ka BP. Une oscillation mineure et 5 oscillations majeures du CO2 atmosphérique pendant la première partie de la période du MIS 6 (189-160 ka BP) ont été découvertes. Cette variabilité est très liée avec la température antarctique. Pendant les périodes stadiales courtes dans l’Atlantique Nord, les variations de CO2 atmosphérique sont négligeables et découplées avec la variabilité de la température antarctique. Durant ces périodes, la force de l’upwelling dans l’océan austral pourrait ne par être suffisante pour impacter le CO2 atmosphérique. De plus, 2 modes de variations du CO2 sont présentes pendant la période du MIS 6. Le maximum de dioxyde de carbone 6 (carbon dioxide maxima 6, CDM 6) suit le réchauffement rapide de l’hémisphère Nord de seulement 100±360 ans, alors que les retards pour les CDM 3 et 4 sont bien plus longs, 1 100±280 ans en moyenne. Ces deux modes de variation du CO2 pourraient être liés à un changement de mode de l’AMOC de la première partie du MIS 6 au MIS 6.5. Ces deux phénomènes sont aussi observés pendant la dernière période glaciaire. Cependant, les données disponibles permettent seulement une discussion exploratoire des mécanismes responsables de la variabilité du CO2 pendant MIS 6. Comme les conditions aux limites de la dernière période glaciaire ne peuvent pas être appliquées au MIS 6, des données supplémentaires et des études par modélisation du MIS 6 sont nécessaires. / The main objective of this thesis is to understand the millennial variability of atmospheric CO2 during the Marine Isotope Stage 6 (MIS 6), the penultimate glacial, period (185─135 kyr BP). During the early MIS 6 period (185-160 kyr BP), 6 millennial-scale climate oscillations can be observed in proxy records of Antarctic temperature, the bipolar see-saw phenomenon in the North Atlantic region, and Monsoon intensity in low latitudes. An intensified hydrological cycle and iceberg calving in the North Atlantic may have impacted on the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation during MIS 6 (Margari et al., 2010). Atmospheric CO2 reconstructions from Antarctic ice cores can provide key information on how atmospheric CO2 concentrations are linked to millennial-scale climate changes. However, existing CO2 records from the Vostok ice core do not show the millennial variability due to the lack of suitable temporal resolution and precision. To understand atmospheric CO2 variability during MIS 6, a precision of less than 2 ppm is mandatory, because there is a possibility that we could observe small CO2 variability of less than 5 ppm during the smaller Antarctic isotope maxima events as observed during the last glacial period (Ahn and Brook, 2014; Bereiter et al., 2012).To investigate how atmospheric CO2 is related with climate change on millennial time scales during MIS 6, we reconstructed 150 samples of atmospheric CO2 data from the EPICA Dome C (EDC) ice core during the MIS 6 period (189.4─135.4 kyr BP). One minor and five major variabilities of atmospheric CO2 during the early MIS 6 period (189─160 kyr BP) were found. These variabilities are highly matched with Antarctic temperature. During the short stadials in the North Atlantic, atmospheric CO2 variations are negligible and decoupled with temperature variations in Dome C. During this period, the strength of upwelling in the southern ocean might not be sufficient to impact on atmospheric CO2. In addition, 2 modes of CO2 variations are present in the MIS 6 period. Carbon dioxide maxima (CDM) 6 lags abrupt warming in the Northern Hemisphere by only 100±360 yrs, while the lags for CDM 3 and 4 are much longer, 1,100±280 yrs on average. Theses 2 modes of CO2 variations might be related with a mode change of AMOC from the earliest MIS 6 to MIS 6.5. These two phenomena also are observed during the last glacial period. However, the limited available proxy data permit only an exploratory discussion of the mechanisms responsible for CO2 variability during MIS6. Because the boundary conditions of the last glacial period cannot be applied to MIS 6, additional proxy data and multiple modelling studies conducted during MIS 6 period are needed.

This thesis presents a new calibration of the Ginkgo stomatal index as a proxy for atmospheric CO2 concentrations using leaves from modern Ginkgo biloba herbarium specimens. Scanning electron images were obtained to count stomates and cells on leaves collected between 1829 and 2015. Average stomatal index (SI) was then calculated for each year. SI is defined as #stomates/(#stomates + # epidermal cells)*100. The relationship between stomatal index and atmospheric CO2 can be expressed in an equation following the form recommended by Wynn (2003), as the most likely representation of the physical laws governing CO2 diffusion across stomates. The new fitted equation for determining CO2 from Ginkgo SI is: CO2=205.7+13,630,000 x SI^(-5.224). This new equation is applied to suitably preserved Cenozoic fossil leaves of Ginkgo and results in a downward revision of estimated CO2 levels, while preserving the general shape of greenhouse spikes in the middle Miocene and Eocene. These spikes correlate to climatic warm and wet spikes derived from paleosol evidence during those times. / 10000-01-01

O enriquecimento da atmosfera com CO2, produto principalmente das atividades humanas, e a consequênte elevação na temperatura ambiente têm se revelado como importantes fatores que afetam a produtividade das plantas. Hymenaea courbaril L. é uma espécie classificada como secundária tardia no processo de sucessão, de reconhecida importância ecológica por sua ampla distribuição ao longo das Américas. Esta árvore tem sido usada como planta modelo no estudo da mobilização de carboidratos de reserva de parede celular de cotilédones, no estudo das respostas de espécies do Neotrópico às elevadas concentrações de CO2, entre outras pesquisas. É conhecido que em jatobá a mobilização de XG de reserva é conduzida primeiramente às folhas em desenvolvimento. Às elevadas temperaturas favorecem o processo de mobilização. Também é sabido que as elevadas concentrações de CO2 diminuem a mobilização de XG dos cotilédones na fase de pós-germinação. O enfoque deste trabalho foi direcionado ao estudo do desenvolvimento inicial de plantas de jatobá e à compreensão dos processos fisiológicos e do metabolismo de carbono envolvidos nas respostas de plantas juvenis às elevadas concentrações de CO2 e à eT. Com esta pesquisa foi evidenciado que estes fatores se associam sinergicamente e favorecem o desenvolvimento de plantas juvenis de jatobá, acelerando o amadurecimento das folhas de enverdecimento tardio através de um maior e mais rápido acúmulo de clorofilas. Tal interação também parece anular a amortização da mobilização de XG e a aclimatação da fotossíntese, promovidos pelas eCO2. No presente estudo também foi evidenciado que as elevadas concentrações de CO2 favorecem as taxas de assimilação de CO2 e à produção de carboidratos não estruturais, como amido. As elevadas temperaturas aceleram o metabolismo das plantas de jatobá, sendo que o aumento no metabolismo depende do conteúdo de carboidratos. As eT favorecem a síntese de Sac, diminuem a produção de amido, portanto, diminuem a razão Amido/Sac à noite. A estratégia metabólica de jatobá reduziria a sensação por parte da hexoquinase do fluxo de hexoses, com o que se atenuaria o abatimento da síntese de enzimas da fotossíntese (aclimatação da fotossíntese). O desenvolvimento inicial de plantas de jatobá permitiu identificar duas fases de crescimento, que estão determinadas pelas suas fontes e reservas de carbono. A primeira fase é de crescimento linear, e conta com os carboidratos produto da mobilização de XG, a fotossíntese e um enorme armazenamento de amido no caule, este último usado possivelmente como fonte complementaria de carbono para a planta até o completo amadurecimento do sistema fotossintetizante. A segunda fase é de estabilização do crescimento, uma vez que são esgotadas as reservas de amido do caule. Neste ponto, a força do dreno de crescimento diminui e aumenta o acúmulo de amido nas folhas completamente expandidas. Considerando-se as estratégias adaptativas de jatobá, em ausência de estresse hídrico, as condições ambientais de e CO2 até 760ppm e eT até 3°C promovem o crescimento de plantas juvenis de H. courbaril. / The continuous rise in anthropogenic CO2 concentration has the potential to lead to an approximate 3°C increase in temperature worldwide and these is thought as being important factors that affect the plants productivity and distribution. Hymenaea courbaril L., jatobá, is a late-successional species that is recognized by its ecological importance and by their distribution from central America to the south of Brazil. This plant species has been used as a model for the studies of cell wall storage carbohydrates mobilization, as well as for the studies of Neotropic species responses to enrichment CO2 atmosphere. It is known that XG mobilization products are driven primarily to expanding leaves. Elevated temperatures promote this mobilization process. In the present work, he initial development of seedlings of Hymenaea courbaril was investigated in order to understand aspects of physiological bevavior and carbon metabolism under elevated CO2 concentrations (e CO2) and/or elevated temperature (eT, +3°C). The results showed that the e CO2 and eT, when associated, actively improved H. courbaril L. young plants development, promoting the maturation of its delayed greening leaves with a higher and a faster chlorophyll accumulation. Such interaction seems to block the reduction of XG mobilization and the photosynthesis acclimation, previously observed to be promoted by the elevated CO2 atmosphere. It was observed that eCO2 increases net assimilation CO2 rates and the non structural carbohydrates production, like starch. Elevated temperatures improved the metabolism in general and this seems to depend on the carbohydrates status. Elevated temperatures enhanced the sucrose synthesis, diminished the starch production, and the starch/sucrose ratio during the night. The metabolic features observed for Hymenaea courbaril are likely to be associated he sugar sensing mechanism, which reduces the photosynthetic enzymes synthesis reduction (photosynthesis acclimation). The jatobas initial development showed two phases determined by its storage compounds in the cotyledons. The first is a linear growth period during which XG mobilization, photosynthesis and a high starch level is stored in the stem, the latter possibly used as a supplementary carbon source until photosynthesis is fully established. The second phase is growth stabilization, once the stem starch reserves are utilized. At that point, the growth sink forces diminish and consequently an increased concentration of starch is obseved in the completed expanded leaves. Considering those strategies, without water stress, the conditions of elevated CO2 and elevated temperature promote growth of young H. courbaril plants.

No description available.

Student Number : 9008538J - MSc Dissertation - School of Biology - Faculty of Science / O’Regan SP, 2005. The long-term effects of fire frequency and season on the woody vegetation in the Pretoriuskop sourveld of the Kruger National Park. MSc Dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. The role of fire in the management of conservation areas has historically been a contentious issue in which traditional agricultural principles and ever-changing conservation principles tend to collide. The Kruger National Park (KNP) in the early 1950s was no exception where the appropriate use of fire and its ecosystem consequences were hotly debated. The controversy surrounding the management of fire in the KNP highlighted the significant lack of understanding of fire and its role in the ecosystem and because of this controversy, the Experimental Burn Plot (EBP) experiment was established in 1954. The EBP experiment comprised 12 treatments, and a pseudo-randomised block design was used in which the 12 fire treatments were replicated four times each in four of the six major vegetation zones identified at the time. The EBP experiment originally comprised 192 experimental plots approximately 7 Ha in size each and covered approximately 12 km2 in the KNP. The twelve fire treatments were an annual burn in August, biennial and triennial burns in February, April, August, October, and December, and a control on which fire was excluded. Despite having been plagued with negative assessments from internal and external researchers from its inception, the EBP experiment was meticulously maintained, and it has now become a valuable research asset in the KNP. Four replicates of twelve plots each were located in the Pretoriuskop sourveld landscape of the KNP. These replicates were named Fayi, Kambeni, Numbi, and Shabeni after nearby landmarks. The Pretoriuskop region is a moist infertile mesic-savanna, which experiences on average 744mm of rain annually. The dominant tree species in Pretoriuskop are Dichrostachys cinerea and Terminalia sericea and the dominant grass species is Hyperthelia dissoluta. A baseline survey of the woody vegetation was done on all the Pretoriuskop plots in 1954 by HP Van Der Schijff. A second survey of the woody vegetation on all the Pretoriuskop plots was done in 1996 by SP O’Regan. This provided a 42-year period of treatment application over which the effects of fire frequency and season on the woody vegetation of the Pretoriuskop region were studied. The aim of this study was to investigate the long-term effects of the twelve fire treatments on the density, structure, and species composition of the woody vegetation in Pretoriuskop. The objectives of this study were: 1. To carry out a complete re-survey of the trees and shrubs on the Pretoriuskop EBPs using similar methods as those used in the baseline survey in 1954. 2. To capture into a digital format pertinent woody vegetation survey data from surveys that had been conducted on the Pretoriuskop EBPs between 1954 and 1996. 3. To compare the density, structure, and composition of the woody vegetation on the Pretoriuskop EBPs between 1954 and 1996, to determine the effects of fire on the woody vegetation of Pretoriuskop. 4. To investigate the history of the Kruger National Park Experimental Burn Plots experiment. The four replicates in the Pretoriuskop region were found generally to have very similar woody vegetation traits (density, species composition, and structural composition). However, the EBPs were established and surveyed in two distinct phases, the first phase comprised the control, August Annual, and the Biennial plots, and the second phase comprised the Triennial plots. The baseline structural composition of the plots established in the first phase was different from the structural composition of the plots in the second phase. Furthermore, the Pretoriuskop EBPs are located in two distinct vegetation types, namely the open and the closed Terminalia sericea \ Combretum woodlands of the Pretoriuskop region. The Numbi and Shabeni replicates are in the open Terminalia sericea \ Combretum woodlands, and the Kambeni and Fayi replicates are in the closed Terminalia sericea \ Combretum woodlands. It was found that the species composition of the plots was influenced by the location of the plots in the different vegetation types. The exclusion of fire in the Pretoriuskop sourveld results in an increase in the density of the overstorey and understorey woody vegetation, and an increase in the number of species, species diversity, and species evenness. This is because fire sensitive and fire intolerant woody species become more abundant as the period between fires increases. In Pretoriuskop, there is no evidence of relay floristic succession, because fire sensitive and fire intolerant woody species do not replace fire tolerant species. Instead, the floristic succession is accumulative and fire tolerant, fire sensitive, and fire intolerant woody species coexist as the period between fires increases. Woody species tolerant of frequent fires in Pretoriuskop are Albizia versicolor, Catunaregam spinosa, Lonchocarpus capassa, Pavetta schumanniana, Senna petersiana, Strychnos madagascariensis, and Turraea nilotica. Woody species that are sensitive or intolerant of fire in Pretoriuskop are Acacia swazica, Bauhinia galpinii, Combretum mossambicense, Commiphora neglecta, Croton gratissimus, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Diospyros lycioides, Diospyros whyteana, Euclea natalensis, Hyperacanthus amoenus, Kraussia floribunda, Ochna natalitia, Olea europaea, Psydrax locuples, Putterlickia pyracantha, Tarenna supra-axillaris, and Zanthoxylum capense. Dichrostachys cinerea and Terminalia sericea were found to dominate in areas that had been burnt frequently as well as areas where fire has been excluded. The change in the density of the woody vegetation as the inter-fire period increases is not linear but rather J shaped with an initial decrease in the density as the inter-fire period increases from 1 year to 3 years. This initial decrease in density is the result of a loss of very short (<1m tall) woody individuals. In contrast, there is no initial decrease in the number of tree equivalents (phytomass) of the woody vegetation as the inter-fire period increases. After the initial decrease in the density of the woody vegetation, the density increases as the inter-fire period increases beyond 3 years. Generally in Pretoriuskop, post fire age of the vegetation was found to be an important factor affecting the structure of the woody vegetation, and as the inter-fire period increases the number of structural groups, the structural diversity, and the structural evenness of the woody vegetation increases. As the inter-fire period increases the number of single-stem individuals relative to the number of multi-stem individuals increases, and the average height of the woody vegetation increases. The findings regarding the effects of fire frequency on the Pretoriuskop EBPs were similar to the findings on other fire experiments in mesic African savannas. The finding on the Pretoriuskop EBPs differed from the findings in other fire trials that were in arid savannas in Africa. Generally, the exclusion of fire in moist savannas (> 600 mm of rain annually) results in the woody vegetation becoming denser, while the exclusion of fire in arid to semi-arid savannas (< 600mm of rain annually) does not result in the woody vegetation becoming denser. In Pretoriuskop, fires occurring in summer between December and February have a different impact on the density, species composition, and structure of the woody vegetation than fires occurring in winter between August and October. Furthermore, fires occurring in April have a different impact on the density, species composition, and structure of the woody vegetation in Pretoriuskop. Woody vegetation burnt by summer fires is denser than woody vegetation burnt by winter fires. The number of species and species diversity of the woody vegetation is also higher in vegetation burnt by summer fires in comparison with vegetation burnt by winter fires. The density and species composition of woody vegetation in areas that have been burnt in summer fires is more similar to areas where fire has been excluded than to areas that have been burnt in winter fires. The woody species associated with vegetation burnt in summer fires and where fire has been excluded are Euclea natalensis, Antidesma venosum, Diospyros lycioides, Phyllanthus reticulatus, Grewia flavescens, Grewia monticola, Ochna natalitia, Peltophorum africanum, Rhus pyroides, Diospyros mespiliformis, Rhus transvaalensis, Securinega virosa, Putterlickia pyracantha, Rhus pentheri, Commiphora neglecta, Heteropyxis natalensis, and Olea europaea. Structurally the average height of the woody vegetation is taller in areas burnt by winter fires than in areas burnt by summer fires. The woody vegetation in areas burnt in summer fires have more single-stem individuals relative to multi-stem individuals than in areas burnt in winter fires. The structural composition of areas burnt in summer fires is more similar to areas where fire has been excluded than with areas burnt in winter fires. The structure of the woody vegetation in areas burnt in winter fires is generally dominated by multi-stem individuals that are 0-1m tall or 3-5m tall. The structure of the woody vegetation in areas burnt in summer fires or where fire has been excluded is dominated by both single-stem and multi-stem individuals of all heights and basal diameters. Findings regarding the effect of early dry season fires (April) in comparison with late dry season fire (August) on the woody vegetation are consistent with the findings on other fire trails in Africa. However, a comparison of all the fire-timing treatments between the Pretoriuskop and Satara EBPs in the KNP reveals that the timing of fires affects the woody vegetation differently in different areas even when the affects at certain times appear similar. The data collected on the Pretoriuskop EBPs reveals that there have been significant changes in the woody vegetation in Pretoriuskop between 1954 and 1996. The density of the woody vegetation increased between 1954 and 1996 by almost 200%. The number of species and the species diversity of the woody vegetation also increased between 1954 and 1996. In 1954, there were approximately equal numbers of single-stem and multi-stem individuals, while in 1996 there were more multi-stem individuals than single-stem individuals. The increase in atmospheric CO2 levels between 1954 and 1996 is believed to have been a factor that has driven the changes in the woody vegetation of Pretoriuskop between 1954 and 1996.

第22回名古屋大学年代測定総合研究センターシンポジウム平成21(2009)年度報告

The thesis presents observations on the CO2 mixing ratio and the carbon isotopic ratio (13C/12C i.e. δ13) of atmospheric CO2 from the Indian region, for the period 2008 - 2011. An experimental system was established at the Centre for Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. The experimental protocol involves collection of air samples, extraction of CO2 from the air samples collected, and finally the measurement of the CO2 mixing ratio and isotopic ratios of the extracted CO2 using pressure gauge readings and the dual inlet peripheral of the isotope ratio mass spectrometer, IRMS MAT 253. The isotopic ratios measured are scaled to VPDB and corrected for their N2O contribution. The experimental set up is calibrated with primary carbonate standards (NBS19) and an air CO2 reference mixture. The analytical precision (reproducibility of paired samples) obtained for the atmospheric CO2 measurement is ±7 µ mol.mol-1, ±0.05‰ and ±0.17‰ for the mixing ratio, δ 13C and δ 18Oof atmospheric CO2 respectively. The present study lays emphasis on the CO2 mixing ratio and the δ 13C of atmospheric CO2. There are very few atmospheric CO2 monitoring stations in India. There exists only one long-term monitoring station, Cabo de Rama, on the west coast of India. Of late, a few new stations for measuring atmospheric trace gases have been in operation, with the major focus being on remote locations. Urban stations in India have never been monitored before for both the mixing ratio and the δ13C of atmospheric CO2 together. Monitoring urban stations in India is crucial today as they have become prime emitters of CO2 due to industrial activity. The emission from the sources varies seasonally and is influenced by factors like the Indian monsoon. The Indian subcontinent is surrounded by the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal which act differentially in terms of CO2 uptake or release. There is also a differential transport of CO2 to and from the open ocean. Thus, understanding the spatial pattern of CO2 in the marine region close to the Indian subcontinent is essential to understand the oceanic uptake/release of CO2. As part of this thesis, an urban area was monitored during 2008 - 2011 and the marine region was observed during the southwest monsoon of 2009. The temporal variation of the CO2 mixing ratio and δ13C of atmospheric CO2 was observed over an urban station, Bangalore (12° 58′ N, 77° 38′ E, masl= 920 m), India. Since Bangalore is one of the developing urban cities in India, it is interesting to monitor Bangalore air to understand the impact of anthropogenic emissions on atmospheric CO2 variability. The region has four distinct seasons, dry summer (March – May), southwest monsoon (June – September), post monsoon (October – November) and winter (December – February). Thus, it is also an ideal location to identify the effect of different seasons on the contribution of CO2 from various sources. Air samples were collected from the Indian Institute of Science campus, Bangalore, during 2008 - 2011. Both the diurnal and seasonal variations of the mixing ratio and δ13C of CO2 were observed in Bangalore. On the diurnal scale, a higher mixing ratio with lighter carbon isotopes (negative value) of δ13C of CO2 was recorded in the air-CO2 analyzed during the early morning compared to the late afternoon samples. The observations suggest that coal combustion, biomass burning and car exhausts are possible sources for CO2 identified based on the Keeling plot method. The nocturnal boundary layer (NBL) is found to influence the buildup of CO2 concentration in the early morning. The presence of the NBL in the early morning prevents the mixing of locally produced air with the CO2 from the free atmosphere above. Thus, the free air contribution of CO2 is reduced during the early morning rather than in the afternoon. The effect of seasonal variability in the height of the NBL on the air CO2 mixing ratio and the 13C of atmospheric CO2 were documented in the present study. On a seasonal scale, the free air contribution of CO2 was found to be higher during the southwest monsoon and winter compared to the dry hot summer and post monsoon period. On a seasonal time scale, a sinusoidal pattern in both the mixing ratio and δ13C has been recorded in the observations. While compared with nearby CO2 monitoring stations like the coastal station, Cabo de Rama, and the Open Ocean station, Seychelles, maintained by CSIRO Australia and NOAA-CMDL respectively, Bangalore recorded higher amplitudes of seasonal variation. Seasonal scale variations have revealed an additional source i.e. emission from the cement industry along with other sources identified from diurnal variations. The emission of CO2 from these different sources is not constant; rather it was found to vary with different seasons. The enhanced biomass burning during the dry season drives the δ13C of atmospheric CO2 towards more negative values, while during the southwest monsoon; the increased biosphere cover pushes the δ13C value of atmospheric CO2 towards positive values. The effect of La Nina in 2011 is also prominent in the observation. The study also intends to identify the spatial variability of both the mixing ratio and δ 13C air-CO2 close to the urban station, Bangalore based on the simultaneous sampling of air from three locations, Bangalore and two coastal stations, Mangalore and Chennai, which are equidistant from Bangalore. Samples were collected during the southwest monsoon and winter of 2010 - 2011. The observations documented a similar source of CO2 for all the three stations irrespective of the season. The factor responsible for the variability in the mixing ratio and the δ 13C of air CO2 among these stations is the differential transport of air from the marine region and its mixing with locally produced air. To identify the variability of atmospheric CO2 over the marine region, the atmosphere over the Bay of Bengal was monitored during the southwest monsoon of 2009 as part of the Continental Tropical Convergence Zone (CTCZ) Cruise expedition. The ocean surface water was also monitored simultaneously for the δ18O of water and the δ13C of dissolved inorganic carbon measurement. The combined observations of both air and water have shown the transport of continental air to the marine region and its uptake by the ocean during the period. The variability of atmospheric-CO2 is also observed during special events like the solar eclipse. During the annular solar eclipse of 15th January, 2010 an unusually depleted source value was identified for Bangalore air. The role of the boundary layer and a change in photosynthesis were identified as possible factors affecting air CO2 composition. In conclusion, the thesis has provided the first observations on air CO2 variability from an urban station in India. The observations have identified the possible sources of CO2 and have demonstrated the role of climatic phenomena like the Atmospheric Boundary Layer, Indian Monsoon, and La Nina in controlling the behaviour of sources and sinks and thus affecting the air CO2 variability over land and ocean. The seasonal scale variation based on day-to-day variability in the afternoon samples has revealed the important contribution of emissions from the cement industry whose contribution was absent in the diurnal variability. Thus, it is evident from this study that the timing of air sampling is crucial while identifying the sources. The per capita emission of individual urban stations in India is different; thus, it is essential to monitor more urban stations to identify sources and their different contributions. In future, the simultaneous monitoring of both continental and marine air over both the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal will enable us to understand the long range transport of atmospheric CO2. The long term monitoring of CO2 from the Indian region can give us a better perspective on the effect of the Indian monsoon on air CO2 variability and vice versa.