This dissertation investigated the role of mental habits in well-being. There has been extensive research on how people form behavioural habits related to their physical health (e.g., diet and exercise), but there have been fewer theoretical and empirical attempts to understand how the same habitual processes might underlie mental health. By better understanding the role of habits in mental health, particularly habitual thinking, clinicians and researchers might be able to improve the treatments offered for mental health concerns (e.g., depression and anxiety). In the three studies presented in this dissertation, I aimed to integrate habit research with the study of mental health by examining the extent to which thoughts can be considered habitual. In Study 1, we conducted a scoping review to describe and summarize the existing literature on mental habits (as they relate to mental health). We screened 2817 articles and included 20 in the review. Of these 20 articles, we examined 24 separate studies and 4 commentaries on mental habits. When defining habits, researchers emphasized the importance of automaticity (described in 80% of articles) as a key factor in differentiating mental habits from other thinking processes. Most research studies used correlational research designs (71%) with university student samples (75%) measuring various constructs including negative self-thinking, worry, self-critical thinking, self-stigma, negative body image thinking, and emotion regulation. We found no articles that measured positive mental habits. Lastly, the concept of mental habits has been poorly integrated with related psychological constructs (e.g., automatic thinking, repetitive negative thinking). In Study 2, we developed two new measures of mental habits, the Positive Thought Automaticity Index (PTAI) and Negative Thought Automaticity Index (NTAI), that integrated the strengths of existing mental habit and automatic thought questionnaires. We then used these two measures to tease apart the roles of automaticity and frequency in predicting well-being outcomes. Based on two samples of participants from the United Kingdom and Canada, these new measures demonstrated predictive and concurrent validity, internal consistency reliability, and test-retest reliability. Positive and negative thought automaticity predicted well-being outcomes over and above thought frequency. Thought automaticity partially mediated the relationship between thought frequency and how much participants believe thoughts to be true. Overall, the results of Study 2 provided evidence of the utility of automaticity as a distinct thinking process compared to frequency. In Study 3, we examined a key component of mental habits that has been under-explored in the literature: the cues that precede automatic thoughts. Participants from the United Kingdom completed a questionnaire about the recent and past cues that have preceded their automatic thoughts. We analyzed the results using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Using thematic analysis, we coded participants responses using the PERMA (Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Achievement) framework. We coded 92% of situations preceding negative thoughts and 97% of situations preceding positive thoughts as fitting within the PERMA framework. Participants described multiple cues preceding the same thought, with a median of five cues reported for both positive and negative thoughts. Participants also endorsed experiencing internal (e.g., emotions) and external (e.g., situations) cues as preceding thoughts in similar proportions. The results from Study 3 contribute to the mental habit literature by providing important information about the nature of the events preceding automatic thinking. Overall, this program of research connects several disparate areas of study (e.g., mental habits, automatic thinking) and provides new insights about how the conceptual framework of mental habits may be useful to both clinicians and researchers. By summarizing the existing research on mental habits (Study 1), distinguishing automatic from frequent thinking (Study 2), and better understanding the cues that precede automatic thoughts (Study 3), this dissertation attempts to clarify the role of habitual thinking in mental health. My intention is that the ideas in this dissertation will stimulate further discussions amongst habit researchers and clinicians, which will improve our understanding of mental health problems and how we treat them.

Research has demonstrated the importance of early social interactions in the development of self-talk. It does not appear, however, that existing research has examined the relationship between parents' self-talk and the self-talk that develops in their children. This study examined the relationship between self-talk in parents and their college-age children. Results revealed significant relationships between students' and parents' positive self-talk, but not negative self-talk. Marginal relationships were found for self-talk ratios (ratios of positive and negative self-talk). Maternal communication was found to mediate the relationship between students' and their mothers' positive self-talk. Different trends also were noted between genders. Finally, self-talk was related significantly to depression, anxiety, and self-esteem. Overall, results of this study emphasize the relationship between parents' and their children's positive self-talk and the importance of self-talk in psychological functioning. These findings lend promise to the possibility of modifying parents' self-talk and communication as a way to modify their children's self-talk and psychological functioning.

THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY WAS TO INVESTIGATE THE EFFECT OF A COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL GROUP COUNSELING PROGRAM ON THE LEARNED RESOURCEFULNESS LEVEL AND AUTOMATIC THOUGHT PATTERNS OF FIFTH GRADE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS. THE STUDY CONSISTS OF TWO PHASES. IN THE FIRST PHASE, CHILDREN&#039 / S VERSION OF SELF-CONTROL (C-SCS) AND COGNITIVE TRIAD INVENTROY FOR CHILDREN (CTI-C) WERE GIVEN TO 232 FIFTH GRADE STUDENTS IN TWO ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN ANKARA. THE DIFFERENCES AMONG THE AUTOMATIC THOUGHT PATTERNS (CTI-C) OF THE STUDENTS BY GENDER AND LEARNED RESOURCEFULNESS (C-SCS) WERE EXPLORED USING A 2 (GENDER) X 2 (HIGH-LOW LEARNED RESOURCEFULNESS) FACTORIAL MANOVA. RESULTS SHOWED THAT STUDENTS WHO WERE HIGHLY RESOURCEFUL SCORED SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER IN TOTAL, NEGATIVE VIEW OF SELF, FUTURE AND WORLD AND POSITIVE ViEW OF SELF, FUTURE AND WORLD. AN EXPEROMENTAL DESIGN WITH ONE TRAINING AND TWO CONTROL GROUPS (PLACEBO-ATTENTION AND NO-TREATMENT) AND THREE MEASUREMENTS (PRE, POST AND FOLLOW-UP) WERE USED IN THE SECOND PHASE OF THE STUDY. 45 STUDENTS (27 MALES, 18 FEMALES) WHO HAD LOW LEARNED RESOURCEFULNESS AND NEGATIVE AUTOMATIC THOUGHT PATTERNS WERE RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO ONE TRAINING AND TWO CONTROL GROUPS. &#039 / COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL GROUP COUNSELING PROGRAM&#039 / WAS IMPLEMENTED TO THE COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL TRAINING STUDENTS&#039 / OVER A PERIOD OF 15 SESSIONS. THE SESSIONS WERE HELD ONCE A WEEK AND LASTED IN 90 MINUTES. STUDENTS IN THE PLACEBO-ATTENTION CONTROL GROUP PLAYED NON-THERAPEUTIC GAMES LiKE LOTTO, GAME OF NAME-CITY-ANIMAL-PLANT, HANGING A MAN, SILENT MOVIE AND SOLVED SOME PUZZLES. THE NO-TREATMENT CONTROL GROUP SUBJETCS DID NOT RECEIVE ANY TRAINING. REPEATED MEASURES ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE WAS USED TO ANALYZE THE DATA COLLECTED IN THE EXPERIMENTAL PHASE OF THIS STUDY. CONTRARY TO THE EXPECTATIONS, THE RESULTS INDICATED THAT &#039 / COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL GROUP COUNSELING PROGRAM&#039 / DID NOT IMPROVE LEARNED RESOURCEFULNESS LEVELS AND INCREASE POSITIVE AUTOMATIC THOUGHT PATTERNS OF STUDENTS.

No description available.

El objetivo de la investigación fue analizar las primeras evidencias psicométricas del Inventario de Pensamientos Automáticos (IPA) de Ruiz y Lujan (1991). Participaron 556 jóvenes y adultos de universidades privadas de Lima Metropolitana; 215 varones y 341 mujeres entre 18 a 30 años (Media = 20,64; σ = 2,21); el diseño fue instrumental con muestreo no probabilístico de tipo intencional. Los resultados revelan que el IPA presenta ítems con contenido representativo y relevante; asimismo, la estructura interna obtenida a través del análisis factorial exploratorio reportó tres factores subyacentes (Catastrofismo, Externalidad, Egocentrismo). Su discrepancia con la versión original, señala la necesidad de renombrar los factores e ir hacia una nueva estructura interna del IPA, la misma que revela valores aceptables (.76 a .91). Se concluye que, el IPA debe ser interpretado de forma tridimensional; aunque es necesario un análisis factorial confirmatorio para corroborar estos resultados. / The objective of the research was to analyze the first psychometric evidences of the Inventory of Automatic Thoughts (IPA) de Ruiz & Lujan (1991). 556 young people and adults from private universities in Metropolitan Lima participated; 215 men and 341 women between 18 and 30 years old (Mean = 20.64; σ = 2.21); the design was instrumental with intentional non-probabilistic sampling. The results reveal that the IPA presents items with representative and relevant content; Likewise, the internal structure obtained through exploratory factor analysis reported three underlying factors (Catastrophism, Externality, Egocentrism). Its discrepancy with the original version points out the need to rename the factors and go towards a new internal structure of the IPA, the same one that reveals acceptable values ​​(.76 to .91). It is concluded that the IPA must be interpreted in a three-dimensional way; although a confirmatory factor analysis is necessary to corroborate these results. / Tesis

Text in Afrikaans / Depression as disorder is an ever-increasing phenomenon. Especially, during the adolescent years, depression seems to be on the increase. The developmental phase of adolescence, characterised by a fragile self-esteem, places high demands on the adolescent. The depressed adolescent frequently has a negative self-esteem manifesting from the adolescent's belief that the demands of this phase are inadequately met. It would appear as if the depressed individual constantly tends to see himself in a negative light. In this study the focus is on the negative thought processes (cognitive distortions) demonstrated by the depressed adolescent. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of cognitive therapy on the self-esteem of the adolescent and interplay thereof with depression. Beck's psychotherapeutic model is evaluated in the light of a single case study / Educational Studies / M.Ed.

Text in Afrikaans / Depression as disorder is an ever-increasing phenomenon. Especially, during the adolescent years, depression seems to be on the increase. The developmental phase of adolescence, characterised by a fragile self-esteem, places high demands on the adolescent. The depressed adolescent frequently has a negative self-esteem manifesting from the adolescent's belief that the demands of this phase are inadequately met. It would appear as if the depressed individual constantly tends to see himself in a negative light. In this study the focus is on the negative thought processes (cognitive distortions) demonstrated by the depressed adolescent. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of cognitive therapy on the self-esteem of the adolescent and interplay thereof with depression. Beck's psychotherapeutic model is evaluated in the light of a single case study / Educational Studies / M.Ed.

Text in Afrikaans / Uit 'n literatuurstudie en empiriese ondersoek wat onderneem is, blyk dit dat 15-40% van alle adolessente subkliniese depressie ervaar. Veranderinge en toenemende druk en eise eie aan die adolessente-fase, bring by baie adolessente depressiewe gevoelens mee. Ten spyte van hierdie omstandighede is daar egter ook baie adolessente wat hierdie fase van ontwikkeling sonder enige noemenswaardige probleme deurloop. Aaron Beck is van mening dat dit nie die omstandighede opsigself is wat tot depressie aanleiding gee nie, maar wel die betekenis wat individue aan omstandighede gee. Beck noem dat depressiewe persone tot irrasionele oortuigings, foutiewe inligting-prosessering en disfunksionele outomatiese gedagtes geneig is. Om hierdie probleem aan te spreek is ses adolessente, wat subkliniese depressie ervaar, aan Beck se kognitiewe terapie onderwerp. Die primere doel van Beck se terapie is die regstelling van bogenoemde disfunksionele kognisies. Die gevolgtrekking is dat wanneer adolessente wat subkliniese depressie ervaar, se disfunksionele kognisies reggestel word, hulle depressiewe gevoelens opgehef word. / From a literature study and empirical research which was undertaken, it seems that 15-40% of all adolescents experience subclinical depression. Changes and increasing pressure and demands, typical of the adolescent phase, causes many adolescents to experience depressing emotions. In spite of these circumstances there are also many adolescents who go through this phase in development without any significant problems. Aaron Beck is of opinion that it is not the circumstances in and of itself that lead to depression but rather the meaning that individuals attached to these circumstances. Beck mentions that depressive people are inclined to irrational beliefs, erroneous information-processing and dysfunctional automatic thoughts. To address this problem, six adolescents who experience subclinical depression, were subjected to Beck's cognitive therapy. The primary target of Beck's therapy is the correction of above mentioned dysfunctional cognitions. The conclusion is that when the dysfunctional cognitions of adolescents who experience subclinical depression can be corrected, their depressive feelings will diminish. / Educational Studies / M. Ed. (Voorligting)

Text in Afrikaans / Uit 'n literatuurstudie en empiriese ondersoek wat onderneem is, blyk dit dat 15-40% van alle adolessente subkliniese depressie ervaar. Veranderinge en toenemende druk en eise eie aan die adolessente-fase, bring by baie adolessente depressiewe gevoelens mee. Ten spyte van hierdie omstandighede is daar egter ook baie adolessente wat hierdie fase van ontwikkeling sonder enige noemenswaardige probleme deurloop. Aaron Beck is van mening dat dit nie die omstandighede opsigself is wat tot depressie aanleiding gee nie, maar wel die betekenis wat individue aan omstandighede gee. Beck noem dat depressiewe persone tot irrasionele oortuigings, foutiewe inligting-prosessering en disfunksionele outomatiese gedagtes geneig is. Om hierdie probleem aan te spreek is ses adolessente, wat subkliniese depressie ervaar, aan Beck se kognitiewe terapie onderwerp. Die primere doel van Beck se terapie is die regstelling van bogenoemde disfunksionele kognisies. Die gevolgtrekking is dat wanneer adolessente wat subkliniese depressie ervaar, se disfunksionele kognisies reggestel word, hulle depressiewe gevoelens opgehef word. / From a literature study and empirical research which was undertaken, it seems that 15-40% of all adolescents experience subclinical depression. Changes and increasing pressure and demands, typical of the adolescent phase, causes many adolescents to experience depressing emotions. In spite of these circumstances there are also many adolescents who go through this phase in development without any significant problems. Aaron Beck is of opinion that it is not the circumstances in and of itself that lead to depression but rather the meaning that individuals attached to these circumstances. Beck mentions that depressive people are inclined to irrational beliefs, erroneous information-processing and dysfunctional automatic thoughts. To address this problem, six adolescents who experience subclinical depression, were subjected to Beck's cognitive therapy. The primary target of Beck's therapy is the correction of above mentioned dysfunctional cognitions. The conclusion is that when the dysfunctional cognitions of adolescents who experience subclinical depression can be corrected, their depressive feelings will diminish. / Educational Studies / M. Ed. (Voorligting)