This thesis addresses the problem of intelligent control of autonomous mobile robots, particularly under circumstances unforeseen by the designer. As the range of applications for autonomous robots widens and increasingly includes operation in unknown environments (exploration) and tasks which are not clearly specifiable a priori (maintenance work), this question is becoming more and more important. It is argued that in order to achieve such flexibility in unforeseen situations it is necessary to equip a mobile robot with the ability to autonomously acquire the necessary task achieving competences, through interaction with the world. Using mobile robots equipped with self-organising, behaviour-based controllers,experiments in the autonomous acquisition of motor competences and navigational skills were conducted to investigate the viability of this approach. A controller architecture is presented that allows extremely fast acquisition of motor competence such as obstacle avoidance, wall and corridor following and deadend escape: these skills are obtained in less than five learning steps,performed in under one minute of real time. This is considerably faster than previous approaches. Because the effective wiring between sensors and actuators is determined autonomously by the robot, sensors and actuators may initially be wired up arbitrarily,which reduces the risk of human error during the setting up phase of the robot. For the first time it was demonstrated that robots also become able to autonomously recover from unforeseen situations such as changes in the robot's morphology, the environment or the task. Rule-based approaches to error recovery obviously cannot offer recovery from unforeseen errors,as error situations covered by such approaches have to be identified beforehand. A robust and fast map building architecture is presented that enables mobile robots to autonomously construct internal representations of their environment, using self-organising feature maps. After a short training time the robots are able to use these self-organising feature maps successfully for location recognition. For the first time the staged acquisition of multiple competences in mobile robots is presented. First obtaining fundamental motor competences such as wall following and deadend escape (primary skills), the robots use these in a second stage to learn higher levels of competence such as the navigational task of location recognition (secondary skills). Besides laying the foundation of autonomous, staged acquisition of high level competences, this approach has the interesting property of securely grounding secondary skills in the robot's own experience, as these secondary skills are defined in terms of the primary ones.

Autonomous mobile robots (AMRs) use decentralized, AI-driven decision-making processes to providing material handling capabilities in industrial settings. Essay 1 examines how firms organize and engage to mitigate uncertainty during external technology integration (ETI), using an abductive approach with dyadic customer-supplier data to extend prior ETI models by exploring firm engagement, organizational adaptation, and distinct uncertainty types in AMR ETI projects. Essay 2 applies a grounded theory approach to examine AMR integration, using constant comparison and theoretical sampling to develop core categories explaining how suppliers, customers, and users exchange knowledge impacting AMR integration and project performance. Finally, Essay 3 is a conceptual paper examining the importance of end-user adoption by integrating ETI and technology acceptance model (TAM) frameworks, exploring important relationships between managerial interventions, cognitive constructs, user acceptance, and project success in AMR ETIs. As a whole, these essays contribute to the body of knowledge by extending the breadth and depth of current ETI models, emerging a substantive theory of AMR AIU, and extending TAM by grounding managerial interventions and individual cognitive constructs in an AMR context. Managers can use these frameworks to differentiate AMRs and other autonomous collaborative technology from traditional automation, and develop strategies enabling timely and effective AMR implementation.

This thesis addresses the problem of motion planning for autonomous robots, given a map and an estimate of the robot pose within it. The motion planning problem for a mobile robot can be defined as computing a trajectory in an environment from one pose to another while avoiding obstacles and optimizing some objective such as path length or travel time, subject to constraints like vehicle dynamics limitations. More complex planning problems such as multi-robot planning or complete coverage of an area can also be defined within a similar optimization structure. The computational complexity of path planning presents a considerable challenge for real-time execution with limited resources and various methods of simplifying the problem formulation by discretizing the solution space are grouped under the class of discrete planning methods. The approach suggests representing the environment as a roadmap graph and formulating shortest path problems to compute optimal robot trajectories on it. This thesis presents two main contributions under the framework of discrete planning. The first contribution addresses complete coverage of an unknown environment by a single omnidirectional ground rover. The 2D occupancy grid map of the environment is first converted into a polygonal representation and decomposed into a set of convex sectors. Second, a coverage path is computed through the sectors using a hierarchical inter-sector and intra-sector optimization structure. It should be noted that both convex decomposition and optimal sector ordering are known NP-hard problems, which are solved using a greedy cut approximation algorithm and Travelling Salesman Problem (TSP) heuristics, respectively. The second contribution presents multi-robot path-planning strategies for recharging autonomous robots performing a persistent task. The work considers the case of surveillance missions performed by a team of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). The goal is to plan minimum cost paths for a separate team of dedicated charging robots such that they rendezvous with and recharge all the UAVs as needed. To this end, planar UAV trajectories are discretized into sets of charging locations and a partitioned directed acyclic graph subject to timing constraints is defined over them. Solutions consist of paths through the graph for each of the charging robots. The rendezvous planning problem for a single recharge cycle is formulated as a Mixed Integer Linear Program (MILP), and an algorithmic approach, using a transformation to the TSP, is presented as a scalable heuristic alternative to the MILP. The solution is then extended to longer planning horizons using both a receding horizon and an optimal fixed horizon strategy. Simulation results are presented for both contributions, which demonstrate solution quality and performance of the presented algorithms.

Autonomous mobile robots are being developed with the aim of accomplishing complex tasks in different environments, including human habitats as well as less friendly places, such as distant planets and underwater regions. A major challenge faced by such robots is to make sure that their actions are executed correctly and reliably, despite the dynamics and the uncertainty inherent in their working space. This thesis is concerned with the ability of a mobile robot to reliably monitor the execution of its plans and detect failures. Existing approaches for monitoring the execution of plans rely mainly on checking the explicit effects of plan actions, i.e., effects encoded in the action model. This supposedly means that the effects to monitor are directly observable, but that is not always the case in a real-world environment. In this thesis, we propose to use semantic domain-knowledge to derive and monitor implicit expectations about the effects of actions. For instance, a robot entering a room asserted to be an office should expect to see at least a desk, a chair, and possibly a PC. These expectations are derived from knowledge about the type of the room the robot is entering. If the robot enters a kitchen instead, then it should expect to see an oven, a sink, etc. The major contributions of this thesis are as follows. • We define the notion of Semantic Knowledge-based Execution Monitoring SKEMon, and we propose a general algorithm for it based on the use of description logics for representing knowledge. • We develop a probabilistic approach of semantic Knowledge-based execution monitoring to take into account uncertainty in both acting and sensing. Specifically, we allow for sensing to be unreliable and for action models to have more than one possible outcome. We also take into consideration uncertainty about the state of the world. This development is essential to the applicability of our technique, since uncertainty is a pervasive feature in robotics. • We present a general schema to deal with situations where perceptual information relevant to SKEMon is missing. The schema includes steps for modeling and generating a course of action to actively collect such information. We describe approaches based on planning and greedy action selection to generate the information-gathering solutions. The thesis also shows how such a schema can be applied to respond to failures occurring before or while an action is executed. The failures we address are ambiguous situations that arise when the robot attempts to anchor symbolic descriptions (relevant to a plan action) in perceptual information. The work reported in this thesis has been tested and verified using a mobile robot navigating in an indoor environment. In addition, simulation experiments were conducted to evaluate the performance of SKEMon using known metrics. The results show that using semantic knowledge can lead to high performance in monitoring the execution of robot plans.

Industry 4.0 is a new phase of industrial growth that has been ushered in by the quick development of digital technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and robots. Collaborative robotic products have appeared in this changing environment, enabling robots to collaborate with people in open workspaces. The paradigm changes away from autonomous robotics and toward collaborative human-robot interaction (HRI) has made it necessary to look at novel ways to improve output, effectiveness, and security. Many benefits, including more autonomy and flexibility, have been made possible by the introduction of Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs) and later Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) for material handling. However, this incorporation of robots into communal workspaces also brings up safety issues that must be taken into account. This thesis aims to address potential threats arising from the increasing automation in shopfloors and shared workplaces between AMRs and human operators by exploring the capabilities of Mixed Reality (MR) technologies. By harnessing MR's capabilities, the aim is to mitigate safety concerns and optimize the effectiveness of collaborative environments. To achieve this the research is structured around the following sub-objectives: the development of a communication network enabling interaction among all devices in the shared workspace and the creation of a MR user interface promoting accessibility for human operators. A comprehensive literature review was conducted to analyse existing proposals aimed at improving HRI through various techniques and approaches. The objective was to leverage MR technologies to enhance collaboration and address safety concerns, thereby ensuring the smooth integration of AMRs into shared workspaces. While the literature review revealed limited research utilizing MR for data visualization in this specific domain, the goal of this thesis was to go beyond existing solutions by developing a comprehensive approach that prioritizes safety and facilitates operator adaptation. The research findings highlight the superiority of MR in displaying critical information regarding robot intentions and identifying safe zones with reduced AMR activity. The utilization of HoloLens 2 devices, known for their ergonomic design, ensures operator comfort during extended use while enhancing the accuracy of tracking positions and intentions in highly automated environments. The presented information is designed to be concise, customizable, and easily comprehensible, preventing information overload for operators.  The implementation of MR technologies within shared workspaces necessitates ethical considerations, including transparent data collection and user consent. Building trust is essential to establish MR as a reliable tool that enhances operator working conditions and safety. Importantly, the integration of MR technologies does not pose a threat to job displacement but rather facilitates the smooth adaptation of new operators to collaborative environments. The implemented features augment existing safety protocols without compromising efficacy, resulting in an overall improvement in safety within the collaborative workspace. In conclusion, this research showcases the effectiveness of MR technologies in bolstering HRI, addressing safety concerns, and enhancing operator working conditions within collaborative shopfloor environments. Despite encountering limitations in terms of time, complexity, and available information, the developed solution showcases the potential for further improvements. The chosen methodology and philosophical paradigm have successfully attained the research objectives, and crucial ethical considerations have been addressed. Ultimately, this thesis proposes and provides a comprehensive explanation for potential future implementations, aiming to expand the actual capabilities of the solution.

The implementation of deep reinforcement learning in mobile robotics offers a great solution for the development of autonomous mobile robots to efficiently complete tasks and transport objects. Reinforcement learning continues to show impressive potential in robotics applications through self-learning and biological plausibility. Despite its advancements, challenges remain in applying these machine learning techniques in dynamic environments. This thesis explores the performance of Deep Q-Networks (DQN), using images as an input, for mobile robot navigation in dynamic maze puzzles and aims to contribute to advancements in deep reinforcement learning applications for simulated and real-life robotic systems. This project is a step towards implementation in a hardware-based system. The proposed approach uses a DQN algorithm with experience replay and an epsilon-greedy annealing schedule. Experiments are conducted to train DQN agents in static and dynamic maze environments, and various reward functions and training strategies are explored to optimize learning outcomes. In this context, the dynamic aspect involves training the agent on fixed mazes and then testing its performance on modified mazes, where obstacles like walls alter previously optimal paths to the goal. In game play, the agent achieved a 100\% win rate in both 4x4 and 10x10 static mazes, successfully making it to the goal regardless of slip conditions. The number of rewards obtained during the game-play episodes indicates that the agent took the optimal path in all 100 episodes of the 4x4 maze without the slip condition, whereas it took the shortest, most optimal path in 99 out of 100 episodes in the 4x4 maze with the slip condition. Compared to the 4x4 maze, the agent more frequently chose sub-optimal paths in the larger 10x10 maze, as indicated by the amount of times the agent maximized rewards obtained. In the 10x10 static maze game-play, the agent took the optimal path in 96 out of 100 episodes for the no slip condition, while it took the shortest path in 93 out of 100 episodes for the slip condition. In the dynamic maze experiment, the agent successfully solved 7 out of 8 mazes with a 100\% win rate in both original and modified maze environments. The results indicate that adequate exploration, well-designed reward functions, and diverse training data significantly impacted both training performance and game play outcomes. The findings suggest that DQN approaches are plausible solutions to stochastic outcomes, but expanding upon the proposed method and more research is needed to improve this methodology. This study highlights the need for further efforts in improving deep reinforcement learning applications in dynamic environments.

Research in the area of autonomous mobile robots has increased over the last several years. Autonomous mobile robots are now being used in a wide variety of applications, including nuclear plant maintenance, interplanetary exploration, military missions and smart highway systems. This thesis is a survey of recent publications, 1990-1996, of wheeled autonomous mobile robots for harsh environments. Various sensing, navigation, and motion control strategies commonly used on autonomous mobile robots are compared. The integration of all three systems in a system architecture is also presented. Following a general discussion of autonomous mobile robot technology, vehicles that have entered the Unmanned Ground Robotics Competition are presented as a focused study of the application of this broad field of research. / Master of Science

Os robôs móveis e de serviço vêm assumindo um papel cada vez mais amplo e importante junto à sociedade moderna. Um tipo importante de robô móvel autônomo são os robôs voltados para a vigilância e segurança em ambientes internos (indoor). Estes robôs móveis de vigilância permitem a execução de tarefas repetitivas de monitoramento de ambientes, as quais podem inclusive apresentar riscos à integridade física das pessoas, podendo assim ser executadas de modo autônomo e seguro pelo robô. Este trabalho teve por objetivo o desenvolvimento dos principais módulos que compõem a arquitetura de um sistema robótico de vigilância, que incluem notadamente: (i) a aplicação de sensores com percepção 3D (Kinect) e térmica (Câmera FLIR), de relativo baixo custo, junto a este sistema robótico; (ii) a detecção de intrusos (pessoas) através do uso conjunto dos sensores 3D e térmico; (iii) a navegação de robôs móveis autônomos com detecção e desvio de obstáculos, para a execução de tarefas de monitoramento e vigilância de ambientes internos; (iv) a identificação e reconhecimento de elementos do ambiente que permitem ao robô realizar uma navegação baseada em mapas topológicos. Foram utilizados métodos de visão computacional, processamento de imagens e inteligência computacional para a realização das tarefas de vigilância. O sensor de distância Kinect foi utilizado na percepção do sistema robótico, permitindo a navegação, desvio de obstáculos, e a identificação da posição do robô em relação a um mapa topológico utilizado. Para a tarefa de detecção de pessoas no ambiente foram utilizados os sensores Kinect e câmera térmica FLIR, integrando os dados fornecidos por ambos sensores, e assim, permitindo obter uma melhor percepção do ambiente e também permitindo uma maior confiabilidade na detecção de pessoas. Como principal resultado deste trabalho foi desenvolvido um iii sistema, capaz de navegar com o uso de um mapa topológico global, capaz de se deslocar em um ambiente interno evitando colisões, e capaz de detectar a presença de seres humanos (intrusos) no ambiente. O sistema proposto foi testado em situações reais com o uso de um robô móvel Pioneer P3AT equipado com os sensores Kinect e com uma Câmera FLIR, realizando as tarefas de navegação definidas com sucesso. Outras funcionalidades foram implementadas, como o acompanhamento da pessoa (follow me) e o reconhecimento de comandos gestuais, onde a integração destes módulos com o sistema desenvolvido constituem-se de trabalhos futuros propostos / Mobile robots and service robots are increasing their applications and importance in our modern society. An important type of autonomous mobile robot application is indoor monitoring and surveillance tasks. The adoption of mobile robots for indoor surveillance tasks allows the execution of repetitive environment patrolling, which may even pose risks to the physical integrity of persons. Thus these activities can be autonomously and safely performed by security robots. This work aimed at the development of key modules and components that integrates the general architecture of a surveillance robotic system, including: (i) the development and application of a 3D perception sensor (Kinect) and a thermal sensor (FLIR camera), representing a relatively low-cost solution for mobile robot platforms; (ii) the intruder detection (people) in the environment, through the joint use of 3D and thermal sensors; (iii) the autonomous navigation of mobile robots within obstacle detection and avoidance, performing the monitoring and surveillance tasks of indoor environments; (iv) the identification and recognition of environmental features that allow the robot to perform a navigation based on topological maps. We used methods from Computer Vision, Image Processing and Computational Intelligence to carry out the implementation of the mobile robot surveillance modules. The proximity and distance measurement sensor adopted in the robotic perception system was the Kinect, allowing navigation, obstacle avoidance, and identifying key positions of the robot with respect to a topological map. For the intruder detection task we used a Kinect sensor together with a FLIR thermal camera, integrating the data obtained from both sensors, and thus allowing a better understanding of the environment, and also allowing a greater reliability in people detection. As a main result of this work, it has been v developed a system capable of navigating using a global topological map, capable of moving itself autonomously into an indoor environment avoiding collisions, and capable of detect the presence of humans (intruders) into the environment. The proposed system has been tested in real situations with the use of a Pioneer P3AT mobile robot equipped with Kinect and FLIR camera sensors, performing successfully the defined navigation tasks. Other features have also been implemented, such as following a person and recognizing gestures, proposed as future works to be integrated into the developed system

Planejamento de movimento tem o propósito de determinar quais movimentos o robô deve realizar para que alcance posições ou configurações desejadas no ambiente sem que ocorram colisões com obstáculos. É comum na robótica móvel simplificar o planejamento de movimento representando o robô pelas coordenadas do seu centro e desconsiderando qualquer restrição cinemática e dinâmica de movimento. Entretanto, a maioria dos robôs móveis possuem restrições cinemáticas não-holonômicas, e para algumas tarefas e robôs, é importante considerar tais restrições juntamente com o modelo dinâmico do robô na tarefa de planejamento. Assim é possível determinar um caminho que possa ser de fato seguido pelo robô. Nesse trabalho é proposto um método de planejamento cinemático-dinâmico que permite planejar trajetórias para robôs móveis usando malhas de estados. Essa abordagem considera a cinemática e a dinâmica do robô para gerar trajetórias possíveis de serem executadas e livre de colisões com obstáculos. Quando obstáculos não representados no mapa são detectados pelos sensores do robô, uma nova trajetória é gerada para desviar desses obstáculos. O planejamento de movimento utilizando malhas de estados foi associado a um algoritmo de desvio de obstáculos baseado no método da janela dinâmica (DWA). Esse método é responsável pelo controle de seguimento de trajetória, garantindo a segurança na realização da tarefa durante a navegação. As trajetórias planejadas foram executadas em duas plataformas distintas. Essas plataformas foram utilizadas em tarefas de navegação em ambientes simulados interno e externo e em ambientes reais. Para navegação em ambientes internos utilizou-se o robô móvel Pioneer 3AT e para navegação em ambientes externos utilizou-se o veículo autônomo elétrico CaRINA 1 que está sendo desenvolvido no ICMC-USP com apoio do Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Sistemas Embarcados Críticos (INCT-SEC). / Motion planning aims to determine which movements the robot must accomplish to reach a desired position or configuration in the environment without the occurrence of collisions with obstacles. It is common in mobile robotics to simplify the motion planning representing the robot by the coordinates of its center of gravity and ignoring any kinematic and dynamic constraint motion. However, most mobile robots have non-holonomic kinematic constraints, and for some tasks and robots, it is important to consider these constraints together with the dynamic model of the robot in task planning. Thus it is possible to determine a path that can actually be followed by the robot. Here we propose a method for kinematic-dynamic path planning using lattice states. This approach considers the kinematic and dynamic of the robot to generate generate feasible trajectories free of collisions with obstacles. When obstacles not represented on the map are detected by the sensors of the robot, a new trajectory is generated to avoid these obstacles. The motion planning using lattice state was associated with an obstacle avoidance algorithm based on the dynamic window approach (DWA). This method is responsible for trajectory tracking to ensure safety in navigation tasks. This method was applied in two distinct platforms. These platforms were used for navigation tasks in both indoor and outdoor simulated environments, as well as, in real environments. For navigation in indoor environments we used a Pioneer 3AT robot and for outdoor navigation we used the autonomous electric vehicle CaRINA1 being developed at ICMC-USP with support National Institute of Science and Technology in Critical Embedded Systems (INCT-SEC).

Os robôs móveis e de serviço vêm assumindo um papel cada vez mais amplo e importante junto à sociedade moderna. Um tipo importante de robô móvel autônomo são os robôs voltados para a vigilância e segurança em ambientes internos (indoor). Estes robôs móveis de vigilância permitem a execução de tarefas repetitivas de monitoramento de ambientes, as quais podem inclusive apresentar riscos à integridade física das pessoas, podendo assim ser executadas de modo autônomo e seguro pelo robô. Este trabalho teve por objetivo o desenvolvimento dos principais módulos que compõem a arquitetura de um sistema robótico de vigilância, que incluem notadamente: (i) a aplicação de sensores com percepção 3D (Kinect) e térmica (Câmera FLIR), de relativo baixo custo, junto a este sistema robótico; (ii) a detecção de intrusos (pessoas) através do uso conjunto dos sensores 3D e térmico; (iii) a navegação de robôs móveis autônomos com detecção e desvio de obstáculos, para a execução de tarefas de monitoramento e vigilância de ambientes internos; (iv) a identificação e reconhecimento de elementos do ambiente que permitem ao robô realizar uma navegação baseada em mapas topológicos. Foram utilizados métodos de visão computacional, processamento de imagens e inteligência computacional para a realização das tarefas de vigilância. O sensor de distância Kinect foi utilizado na percepção do sistema robótico, permitindo a navegação, desvio de obstáculos, e a identificação da posição do robô em relação a um mapa topológico utilizado. Para a tarefa de detecção de pessoas no ambiente foram utilizados os sensores Kinect e câmera térmica FLIR, integrando os dados fornecidos por ambos sensores, e assim, permitindo obter uma melhor percepção do ambiente e também permitindo uma maior confiabilidade na detecção de pessoas. Como principal resultado deste trabalho foi desenvolvido um iii sistema, capaz de navegar com o uso de um mapa topológico global, capaz de se deslocar em um ambiente interno evitando colisões, e capaz de detectar a presença de seres humanos (intrusos) no ambiente. O sistema proposto foi testado em situações reais com o uso de um robô móvel Pioneer P3AT equipado com os sensores Kinect e com uma Câmera FLIR, realizando as tarefas de navegação definidas com sucesso. Outras funcionalidades foram implementadas, como o acompanhamento da pessoa (follow me) e o reconhecimento de comandos gestuais, onde a integração destes módulos com o sistema desenvolvido constituem-se de trabalhos futuros propostos / Mobile robots and service robots are increasing their applications and importance in our modern society. An important type of autonomous mobile robot application is indoor monitoring and surveillance tasks. The adoption of mobile robots for indoor surveillance tasks allows the execution of repetitive environment patrolling, which may even pose risks to the physical integrity of persons. Thus these activities can be autonomously and safely performed by security robots. This work aimed at the development of key modules and components that integrates the general architecture of a surveillance robotic system, including: (i) the development and application of a 3D perception sensor (Kinect) and a thermal sensor (FLIR camera), representing a relatively low-cost solution for mobile robot platforms; (ii) the intruder detection (people) in the environment, through the joint use of 3D and thermal sensors; (iii) the autonomous navigation of mobile robots within obstacle detection and avoidance, performing the monitoring and surveillance tasks of indoor environments; (iv) the identification and recognition of environmental features that allow the robot to perform a navigation based on topological maps. We used methods from Computer Vision, Image Processing and Computational Intelligence to carry out the implementation of the mobile robot surveillance modules. The proximity and distance measurement sensor adopted in the robotic perception system was the Kinect, allowing navigation, obstacle avoidance, and identifying key positions of the robot with respect to a topological map. For the intruder detection task we used a Kinect sensor together with a FLIR thermal camera, integrating the data obtained from both sensors, and thus allowing a better understanding of the environment, and also allowing a greater reliability in people detection. As a main result of this work, it has been v developed a system capable of navigating using a global topological map, capable of moving itself autonomously into an indoor environment avoiding collisions, and capable of detect the presence of humans (intruders) into the environment. The proposed system has been tested in real situations with the use of a Pioneer P3AT mobile robot equipped with Kinect and FLIR camera sensors, performing successfully the defined navigation tasks. Other features have also been implemented, such as following a person and recognizing gestures, proposed as future works to be integrated into the developed system