8 pp. / Reviewed 2/2017; Originally Published 2000 / El manejo apropiado del riego requiere la evaluación de parte del agricultor de sus necesidades de riego en base a medidas de varios parámetros físicos del suelo. Algunos productores utilizan equipo sofisticado mientras que otros se basan en métodos empíricos o en el sentido común. Cualquiera que sea el método usado, cada uno tiene sus propios méritos y limitaciones. El agricultor generalmente se hace dos preguntas al desarrollar una estrategia para el manejo del riego: “¿Cuándo regar?” y “¿Cuánta agua aplicar?”. Este boletín responde a la pregunta CUÁNDO. Reviewed 2/2017; Originally Published 09/2010.

Corn grain yields can be limited by nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) availability on sandy coastal plain soils when soil moisture is adequate for high yields. This study evaluated irrigated corn grain yield response to late-season (just prior to tassel) N and K fertilizer applications, and enabled the proposal of a method to predict potential for corn to utilize late-season N applications based on soil moisture. In an experiment to evaluate late-season fertilizer application rates, N and K were applied in a complete factorial of five N and K rates ranging from 0 to 112 kg ha-1. Additionally, water use of high yielding corn was measured, and historical weather patterns evaluated in an effort to predict the need for late-season fertilizer applications based on soil moisture. Grain yield was increased significantly by late-season N applications in three of four experiments. Potassium applications did not affect yield, and there were no interactions between N and K. Significant drainage due to high rainfall levels in 2000 prohibited further refinement of corn water use data for Virginia climatic conditions. Historical weather patterns, potential evapotranspiration of corn, and soil water holding properties were evaluated. In order to provide corn with adequate moisture during a two-week moisture-sensitive critical period beginning at tassel, soils must be near field capacity at the start of the period and receive above-average (75th percentile) rainfall during the period. / Master of Science

Abstract Salinity has considerable adverse effects on agriculture through reduction in plant growth and water use. Sodium chloride salinity has both an osmotic effect on plant water relations, and a toxic effect on cellular processes. The relative contribution of these two effects to plant growth depends on a range of factors including plant specific tolerance mechanisms, such as Na and Cl exclusion, compartmentation of ions at a whole plant and cellular level, and synthesis of organic osmotic compounds for plant osmotic adjustment. Plants growing in saline soil would also experience reduced plant available water, due to the additional osmotic effect on soil water potential. The effect of salinity on plant growth is further complicated by the interactions of environmental conditions with plant water and ion uptake. This thesis examines the osmotic and toxic effects of salinity on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), with particular focus on plant water availability, effects of Na and Cl toxicity, and temperature and humidity effects. While considerable research has been undertaken into the physiological response of plants to NaCl, our understanding of the capacity of plants to extract water from saline soils has remained largely theoretical. Total plant available water is largely determined by the matric potential of the soil. Presence of sodium chloride would have an additional osmotic effect, and previous theory stated that the salt tolerance of the plant determined the extent to which this osmotic potential reduced plant available water. The capacity of wheat and chickpea to extract water from saline soils was examined in a soil experiment where water stress was imposed on established plants, which were then grown until permanent wilting point (PWP) was reached. Wheat extracted to lower soil water potentials (-1.5 MPa), than chickpea (-900 kPa) in 0 NaCl treatments. Where salinity was low to moderate, plants were able to extract water to a PWP determined by the combined total of matric and osmotic potentials. Wheat extracted water to PWP in salinity treatments up to soil ECse of 5.3 dS/m, and chickpea to 2.9 dS/m. As salinity increased, toxic effects of salinity dominated, and water extraction by plants was significantly lower than that determined by total soil water potential. Solution culture experiments investigated the comparative toxic effects of Na, Cl and salt mixtures. Growth of wheat was reduced by Na toxicity, but not Cl toxicity, with Na causing a small, but significant additional reduction in growth, compared to high Cl or a salt mixture. Reductions in growth of 50% from control treatments occurred at -500 kPa for the Na treatment, and -630 kPa for the Cl and mixed salt treatments. In contrast, growth of chickpea was significantly reduced by both Na and Cl toxicity, with a large difference in growth compared to the salt mixture. Growth reductions of 50% occurred at -330 kPa for the Cl treatments, and -450 kPa for the Na treatment. A 50% growth reduction was not observed in the mixed salt treatment. Tolerance of saline conditions is reduced under stressful environmental conditions, such as high temperature and low relative humidity. Hot and dry conditions were shown to reduce the tolerance of saline conditions by both wheat and chickpea, compared to cool or humid conditions. Tissue concentrations of Na in wheat were disproportionately high in treatments with high evaporative demand, while tissue Cl was not related to evaporative demand. Tissue concentrations of Na in chickpea increased with temperature, but not relative humidity, while tissue Cl concentrations were highly correlated with evaporative demand. The relationships between NaCl salinity, plant water use, and environmental conditions were examined, allowing further development of the two phase salinity model. In particular, the transition point between the osmotic and toxic salinity effects. While the concentration of NaCl in the soil remains the primary factor, soil water status, environmental stresses and presence of other salts may dictate whether salinity be tolerated by the plant or not. The ability of the plant to extract water to PWP, as determined by total matric and osmotic potential has been identified as a useful indicator of salinity tolerance. The point at which toxicity of Na and/or Cl is observed is associated with a rapid increase in Na and Cl uptake by the shoot tissue, and a decrease in the amount of water the plant is able to extract from the soil. Within the osmotic region of salinity stress, the plant is able to extract water to PWP, but as NaCl becomes toxic the plant is unable to utilize this water.

Les sols sont définis comme étant caillouteux à partir d’une proportion supérieure à 35 % d’éléments grossiers. Les sols caillouteux - dont certains supportent des zones de grandes cultures - couvrent environ 30% de la superficie de l’Europe occidentale. Outre le fait qu’ils sont plus contraignants pour la production agricole car les opérations culturales y sont plus délicates, les sols caillouteux sont souvent des sols peu épais ; ils contribuent ainsi de façon significative à la recharge des nappes mais sont a priori très sensibles au lessivage hivernal du nitrate et des produits phytosanitaires. Malgré leur grande étendue géographique et leurs propriétés spécifiques, les sols caillouteux ont été peu étudiés. Devant ce déficit de connaissances et devant les problèmes spécifiques posés par les sols caillouteux (variabilité de la phase caillouteuse, échanges entre la phase caillouteuse et la fraction fine des sols), tant en termes de production végétale qu’en termes de protection de l’environnement, ce projet de thèse a eu pour objectifs de : i) déterminer la réserve utile des éléments grossiers de sols caillouteux d’origine sédimentaire ; ii) d’évaluer qualitativement et quantitativement la pierrosité de sols caillouteux à l’échelle parcellaire ; et iii) d’estimer la réserve utile effective de sols caillouteux et leur fonctionnement hydrique sur de grands territoires agricoles. Grâce à des analyses au laboratoire, nous avons montré que les cailloux étaient saturés en eau à -100 hPa et que les teneurs en eau à la capacité au champ et au point de flétrissement pouvaient s’exprimer simplement en fonction de la masse volumique, ce qui a permis de définir des fonctions de pédotransfert robustes et opérationnelles pour le calcul de l’humidité utile des éléments grossiers. Grâce à l’analyse du bruit du signal de la résistivité électrique, mesurée in situ par prospections géophysiques, il a été possible d’évaluer leur pierrosité volumique à l’échelle d’une parcelle. Enfin, à l’échelle régionale, nous avons montré que la non-prise en compte du volume de la phase caillouteuse et/ou de ses propriétés conduisait à des sous-estimations de 20 % de la réserve utile, ce qui avait pour conséquence une surestimation du déficit hydrique de 20 mm par an en moyenne, avec une grande variabilité spatiale. Ces travaux permettront, à terme, une meilleure gestion spatialisée des agrosystèmes, aux échelles locales et régionales. En effet, les nouvelles propriétés hydriques calculées permettront d’améliorer la compréhension du fonctionnement environnemental spatialisé des sols afin de mieux estimer certains risques (lessivage de nitrate, émissions de gaz à effet de serre par les sols, etc.). / Stony soils are soils containing a proportion of rock fragments larger than 35%. These soils - including intensive agricultural areas - cover about 30% of the surface of Western Europe. Stony soils are not only more stringent for agricultural production because the farming operations are usually more difficult, but also they are often thin; they then significantly contribute to the groundwater recharge, but are they are very sensitive to winter leaching of nitrate and pesticides. Despite their geographical spread and their specific properties, the stony soils have not been largely studied whereas they present specific scientific problems (variability of phase stony, exchanges between the stony phase and the fine fraction of soil). In that context, this thesis aimed at: i) determining the available water content of rock fragments from rock fragments of sedimentary origin; ii) assessing qualitatively and quantitatively the stoniness of stony soils at field scale; and iii) estimating the effective available water content of stony soils and their hydric functioning for large agricultural areas. From laboratory experiments, we demonstrated that rock fragments were saturated for a water potential of -100 hPa and that their water content at field capacity and at permanent wilting point could be easily estimated from their bulk density, which enable to define robust and operational pedotransfer functions for the estimation of the available water content of rock fragments. Thanks to the analysis of the signal noise of the electrical resistivity, measured in situ by geophysical prospectings, it was possible to assess the stoniness of stony soils at the plot scale. Finally, at the regional scale, we demonstrated that the available water content could be underestimated of about 20 % when the volume and/or properties of rock fragments were not taken into account, which induced overestimations of the hydric deficit of about 20 mm as a mean, with high spatial variability. This work will ultimately be used for a better spatial management of agricultural soils, at local and regional scales. Indeed, the new hydric properties will help in improving our knowledge of the environmental spatial soil functioning in order to better estimate some risks (nitrate leaching, greenhouse gas emissions from soils).

Der Gegenstand des Projektes SAPHIR war die Untersuchung von Trockenstress, Wasserproduktivität und Bewässerungsbedarf landwirtschaftlicher und gemüsebaulicher Nutzpflanzen mit Hilfe von Bewässerungsexperimenten und Simulationswerkzeugen (virtuelles Feld). Das Hauptziel war die Bereitstellung relevanter Informationen, Schlußfolgerungen und Handlungsoptionen für wesentliche Akteure (Landwirte und Entscheidungsträger auf regionaler Ebene) aus der sächsischen Landwirtschaft. Einen einfachen Zugang zu den entwickelten Werkzeugen und Ergebnissen liefert ein webbasiertes Entscheidungshilfesystem mit maßgeschneiderten Schnittstellen für die verschiedenen Akteure, dass die Ermittlung der Bewässerungswürdigkeit beliebiger Standorte und angepasster Anbaumuster für Sachsen für gegenwärtige und zukünftige Klimabedingungen ermöglicht. Die Bestimmung der dafür wichtigen Datengrundlagen, nämlich kulturspezifische Ertragskurven erfolgte auf zwei Wegen: durch konkrete Feldversuche sowie simulationsbasierte Optimierung. Durch die Verwendung von prognostischen Simulationsmodellen ist die Übertragung der Ergebnisse auf andere klimatische Standorte möglich und wurde wird zur Zeit für die Vereinigte Arabische Emirate und den Oman erprobt. Im Rahmen von SAPHIR fand eine intensive Qualifizierung der Nachwuchsforscher statt. Dies umfaßte nicht nur eine umfassende Vermittlung von Spezialwissen über Bewässerungslandwirtschaft inklusive der Teilkomponenten Messung, Modellierung, Analyse und Darstellung sondern auch der Erwerb von Fähigkeiten in Projektmanagement und Kommunikation für eine erfolgreiche Zusammenarbeit innerhalb der interdisziplinär zusammengesetzten Forschergruppe. Die von uns durchgeführten Arbeiten erfolgten in zwei grundsätzlichen Richtungen. Zum einen entwickelten wir die Werkzeuge zur Entscheidungshilfe in der Reihenfolge: experimentelle Untersuchung → Modellierung und Simulation des Bewässerungssystems → simulationsbasierte Optimierung des Bewässerungssystems → Mikro- und Makroökonomische Bewertung und Optimierung. Zum anderen wurden die Arbeiten auf unterschiedlichen räumlichen Skalen durchgeführt: Mikroskala, Feldskala, Betriebsebene sowie regionale (Meso-) Skala.:1 Ziele/Teilziele des Projektes 1 1.1 Bewässerungsversuche und Übertragung von Ergebnissen 1 1.2 Informationserweiterung durch Modellierung 1 2 Regionale Einordnung 3 3 Angaben zur Teilnehmerstruktur 5 4 Durchgeführte Arbeiten 7 4.1 Feld- und Vegetationshallenversuche 7 4.1.1 F2012 Durchführung von spezifischen Feldversuchen 2012 7 4.1.2 F2013 Durchführung von spezifischen Feldversuchen 2013 7 4.1.3 F2014 Durchführung von spezifischen Feldversuchen 2014 7 4.1.4 G2014 Untersuchungen zu Unterschieden in der Strahlungsexposition bei Containerexperimenten in einer Vegetationshalle im Vergleich zu Feld- beständen 7 4.2 Arbeitspaket A1 8 4.2.1 A1.1 Sichtung und Analyse vorhandener Daten (Klima, Boden, Pflanzen, Bewirtschaftung) 8 4.2.2 A1.2 Modellwahl (Pflanzenwachstum, Bodenwasserhaushalt) 9 4.2.3 A1.3 Auswahl relevanter Leitböden und Kulturpflanzen 9 4.2.4 A1.4 Generierung langjähriger Klimazeitreihen 10 4.3 Arbeitspaket A2 10 4.3.1 A2.1 Modellerstellung und -kalibrierung 10 4.3.2 A2.2 Umfangreiche Simulations- und Optimierungsrechnungen10 4.3.3 A2.3 Optimales Bewässerungsmanagement 11 4.3.4 A2.4 Kosten-Nutzen-Analysen 11 4.4 Arbeitspaket A3 11 4.4.1 A3.1 Anwendung prognostischer Klimaszenarienrechnungen 11 4.4.2 A3.2 Erstellung von stochastischen Ertragsfunktionen 12 4.4.3 A3.2 Erstellung von stochastischen Bodenkennfunktionen 12 4.4.4 A3.3 Erstellung des Entscheidungshilfesystems 12 5 Methoden 13 5.1 Messexperimente Freising 13 5.1.1 Bewässerungsversuche F2013 13 5.1.2 Bewässerungsversuche F2014 14 5.1.3 Strahlungsmessungen F2014 16 5.2 Messexperimente Brandis 18 5.3 Messexperimente Pillnitz 21 5.4 Modellierung auf der Mikroskala 25 5.4.1 Einfluss des Wurzelmodells auf den Wurzelwasserentzug 25 5.4.2 Lysimetermodell 27 5.5 Modellierung auf der Feldskala 29 5.5.1 Klimadaten in Dresden Pillnitz 30 5.5.2 Modellanalyse und Modellkalibrierung 31 5.5.3 Modellkalibrierung für den Standort Pillnitz 34 5.5.4 Stochastische Ertragsfunktionen – SCWPF 35 5.6 Modellierung auf der Regionalskala 36 5.6.1 Klimadaten 36 5.6.2 Regionale Pflanzenmodellierung 37 5.6.3 Ableitung des Wasserdargebotes 39 5.7 Agrarökonomische Bewertung 41 5.7.1 Spline-Interpolation der SCWPF 42 5.7.2 Feldskala 44 5.7.3 Regionalskala 45 5.7.4 Optimierung 46 5.8 Prototypische Umsetzung des Entscheidungshilfesystems 49 5.8.1 Konzept des Entscheidungshilfesystems 49 5.8.2 IT-Konzept 50 5.8.3 Software 50 6 Ergebnisse und deren Dokumentation 53 6.1 Messexperimente Freising 53 6.2 Feldexperimente in Brandis 59 6.3 Feldexperimente in Pillnitz 62 6.4 Auswertung von Klimadaten 67 6.4.1 Projizierte Niederschlagsänderung 67 6.4.2 Trockenheitsindizes – Methode für eine erste Gefährdungsanalyse 67 6.4.3 Beispielhafte Entwicklung von Temperatur und Niederschlag 69 6.5 Einfluss des Wurzelmodells auf den Wurzelwasserentzug 70 6.6 Modellierungsergebnisse auf der Feldskala 76 6.7 Stochastische Ertragsfunktion – dateninduzierte Unsicherheit 79 6.8 Modellierungsergebnisse auf der Regionalskala 80 6.8.1 Ertrag und Wasserbedarf 80 6.8.2 Wasserdargebot 83 6.8.3 Gegenüberstellung von Wasserdargebot und -bedarf 83 6.8.4 Erträge weiterer Kulturen 85 6.8.5 Wasserproduktivitäten 87 6.9 Agrarökonomie 87 6.10 Entscheidungshilfesystem 90 6.10.1 Restriktionen 94 6.11 Dokumentation der Ergebnisse 96 7 Nachhaltigkeit 99 7.1 Technologieentwicklung und -transfer 99 7.2 Persönliche Qualifikation der Mitarbeiter 99 A Anhang: Durchgeführte Arbeiten 103 B Anhang: Ergebnisse 105 B.1 Messexperimente 105 B.2 Ertragssicherheit 106 B.3 Wasserproduktivität 111 B.4 Entscheidungshilfesystem 116 Abbildungsverzeichnis 119 Tabellenverzeichnis 125 Literaturverzeichnis 127

No description available.

La alta frecuencia de cultivos de oleaginosas con moderados aportes y persistencia de residuos podría limitar la normal productividad de los suelos. La inclusión de cultivos invernales (utilizados como cultivos de cobertura, CC) en la región semiárida y subhúmeda pampeana sería una alternativa para proveer de residuos ricos en C y promover al desarrollo y al mantenimiento de la cobertura de los suelos. Pero se reconoce que el consumo hídrico de éstos podría interferir en la oferta de agua para el cultivo siguiente. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar la eficiencia en la producción de materia seca (MS) de cereales de invierno utilizados como CC y sus efectos sobre los contenidos de agua útil y nitratos en suelos diferenciados por el régimen hídrico. Los estudios se desarrolla-ron en 4 sitios experimentales [Luan Toro (LP) (Haplustol Entico, precipitación 624 mm), Dorila (LP) (Haplustol Entico, precipitación 873 mm), General Villegas (BA) (Hapludol Thapto Árgico, precipitación 906 mm) y General Pinto (BA) (Argiudol Típico, precipitación 1116 mm)]. Los tratamientos fueron: Secale cereale (C), Lolium multiflorum (R), Avena sativa (A) y un tratamiento Testigo, sin CC (T). La producción de MS al momento del secado de los CC varió entre 1226 y 10500 kg ha-1. Se observó una gran influencia del régimen hídrico de los suelos sobre la producción del MS de los CC. El contenido de agua total al momento de la siembra explicó el 57 % de la variabilidad de la producción de MS, mientras que el contenido de agua total en el suelo a la siembra más las precipitaciones durante el ciclo de desarrollo de los CC, explicó el 89 % de la variabilidad. En todos los sitios el centeno produjo la mayor cantidad de MS, seguida por la avena y el rye grass. La mayor variación se dio dentro del mismo sitio, entre los años de evaluación. El uso consuntivo hasta el momento del secado varió entre 88 y 299 mm. La especie con mayor eficiencia de uso de agua fue el centeno, alcanzando su máximo valor en el sitio de General Pinto (54 kg MS mm-1). Los valores de resistencia a la penetración fueron mayores bajo los tratamientos con CC y tuvieron una relación significativa con los contenidos hídricos del suelo. Sólo en el sitio Dorila los mayores valores fueron registrados en el tratamiento T, sin comprobarse relación significativa entre variaciones en la RP y los contenidos hídricos del suelo. Los contenidos de N-NO3- en el suelo fueron mayores en los tratamientos testigos, independientemente del sitio, en tanto que los contenidos de N de la biomasa variaron entre 29 y 275 kg ha-1; con mayores valores para el centeno. La producción de soja varió entre 1069 y 5346 kg ha-1 y no se afectó por la inclusión de CC. Estudios futuros deben, en el largo plazo, contemplar el beneficio de la incorporación de CC sobre las propiedades físicas y químicas del suelo en sistemas agrícolas de la región semiárida y subhúmeda pampeana dedicados al cultivo de soja. / The soil productivity can be limited because of a frequent presence of oil crops and because of their little residue cover production and persistence on the soils. In the semiarid and subhumid Pampas region, the use of winter cover crops (CC) could provide residues with high C contents and maintain an adequate soil residue cover. But, the soil water use of the CC during the winter season can modify the normal soil water availability for the follo-wing crop. The objective of this research was to evaluate the dry matter (MS) production efficiency of winter cereals cultivated as CC and their effect on the soil available water and soil nitrates under two soil moisture regimes. The study was performed in four experimental sites: Luan Toro (La Pampa) (Entic Haplustoll, mean anual rainfall of 624 mm), Dorila (La Pampa) (Entic Haplustoll, mean anual rainfall of 873 mm), General Villegas (Buenos Aires) (Thapto-argic Hapludoll, mean anual rainfall of 906 mm)and General Pinto (Buenos Aires) (Typic Argiudoll, mean anual rainfall of 1116 mm). The treatments were: Rye [Secale cereale (C)], Rye grass [Lolium multiflorum (R)] and oat [Avena sativa (A)] and an untreated control without CC (T). The MS production at the moment of killing the CC varied between 1226 and 10500 kg ha-1. A strong effect of the soil water regime on the MS production of the CC was observed. The soil water content at the moment of seeding the CC explained 57 % of the MS production and the soil water content at seeding and rainfalls during the CC growing season explained almost 89 % of the variability in MS production. In the four locations, rye showed the greater MS production followed by oat and rye grass. The greater variability was observed within each of the sites and the studied seasons. The water uptake at the moment of killing the CC varied between 88 and 299 mm. Rye was the cereal with greater water use efficiency with a highest value in General Pinto with 54 kg of MS mm-1. The soil penetration resistance (RP) values were higher under CC treatments and negatively related with the soil mois-ture contents. Only in Dorila the highest values of RP were observed in the control treatment without a significant relationship between them and the soil water contents. The soil N-NO3- contents were greater in the T than in the CC treatments. The N content of the CC biomass varied between 29 and 75 kg ha-1 achieving greater values with rye. The soybean grain production varied between 1069 and 5346 kg ha-1 without differences due to the CC treatments. Future studies should study the effects of the CC use of physical and chemical soil properties in agricultural systems from the semiarid and subhumid pampas region under continuous soybean crop production.

Der Gegenstand des Projektes SAPHIR war die Untersuchung von Trockenstress, Wasserproduktivität und Bewässerungsbedarf landwirtschaftlicher und gemüsebaulicher Nutzpflanzen mit Hilfe von Bewässerungsexperimenten und Simulationswerkzeugen (virtuelles Feld). Das Hauptziel war die Bereitstellung relevanter Informationen, Schlußfolgerungen und Handlungsoptionen für wesentliche Akteure (Landwirte und Entscheidungsträger auf regionaler Ebene) aus der sächsischen Landwirtschaft. Einen einfachen Zugang zu den entwickelten Werkzeugen und Ergebnissen liefert ein webbasiertes Entscheidungshilfesystem mit maßgeschneiderten Schnittstellen für die verschiedenen Akteure, dass die Ermittlung der Bewässerungswürdigkeit beliebiger Standorte und angepasster Anbaumuster für Sachsen für gegenwärtige und zukünftige Klimabedingungen ermöglicht. Die Bestimmung der dafür wichtigen Datengrundlagen, nämlich kulturspezifische Ertragskurven erfolgte auf zwei Wegen: durch konkrete Feldversuche sowie simulationsbasierte Optimierung. Durch die Verwendung von prognostischen Simulationsmodellen ist die Übertragung der Ergebnisse auf andere klimatische Standorte möglich und wurde wird zur Zeit für die Vereinigte Arabische Emirate und den Oman erprobt. Im Rahmen von SAPHIR fand eine intensive Qualifizierung der Nachwuchsforscher statt. Dies umfaßte nicht nur eine umfassende Vermittlung von Spezialwissen über Bewässerungslandwirtschaft inklusive der Teilkomponenten Messung, Modellierung, Analyse und Darstellung sondern auch der Erwerb von Fähigkeiten in Projektmanagement und Kommunikation für eine erfolgreiche Zusammenarbeit innerhalb der interdisziplinär zusammengesetzten Forschergruppe. Die von uns durchgeführten Arbeiten erfolgten in zwei grundsätzlichen Richtungen. Zum einen entwickelten wir die Werkzeuge zur Entscheidungshilfe in der Reihenfolge: experimentelle Untersuchung → Modellierung und Simulation des Bewässerungssystems → simulationsbasierte Optimierung des Bewässerungssystems → Mikro- und Makroökonomische Bewertung und Optimierung. Zum anderen wurden die Arbeiten auf unterschiedlichen räumlichen Skalen durchgeführt: Mikroskala, Feldskala, Betriebsebene sowie regionale (Meso-) Skala.

The aim of this thesis is to monitor how the amount of water (water activity) affects the amount of microorganisms is selected packaged meat products from the point of view standards, which specify their specific requirements for the health safety of these products. The first part of this work describes various types of packaging materials of meat products, the microorganisms that occur in them and the definition of water activity. The second part describes the actual measurement of water activity and the measurement of the occurrence of microorganisms and coliforms, from selection of suitable meat products, their types of packaging, sample preparation and evaluation of measured methods. The results showed, that the activity of water affects the occurrence of microorganisms and coliforms, in that the higher the activity of water, the higher microorganisms presence.

Vários trabalhos relacionados ao tema produção de água estão sendo realizados, tendo em comum a associação da cobertura florestal com o escoamento em bacias hidrográficas. Entretanto, não existem estudos onde foram verificados os locais onde esta cobertura tem efeito ótimo, pois, este é dependente das condições edafoclimáticas de cada bacia. O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar as alterações na produção de água ocasionadas pela posição das áreas com cobertura florestal em relação às de solos rasos em uma bacia hidrográfica. Os estudos foram realizados na Bacia Hidrográfica do Ribeirão dos Marins em Piracicaba, SP, Brasil, por meio da modelagem hidrológica utilizando o modelo distribuído GSSHA. Para a calibração foram utilizados dados meteorológicos, fluviométricos e pluviométricos dos anos de 1999 e 2000, além da obtenção, em laboratório, da condutividade hidráulica e da curva de retenção dos solos da bacia. Foram realizadas sondagens SPT e testes de infiltração de água no solo para determinar a espessura dos solos na bacia e a condutividade hidráulica da zona saturada (lençol freático) desta. A espessura dos solos foi representada por um modelo numérico, elaborado a partir das espessuras medidas e da utilização do modelo HAND. A profundidade do lençol freático foi representada por outro modelo numérico, elaborado a partir da espessura do solo e da profundidade deste lençol medida em campo. Uma nova metodologia que, a partir do coeficiente CN, estima o coeficiente de rugosidade de Manning foi utilizada, apresentando resultados satisfatórios. Nos processos de calibração e validação o modelo apresentou coeficientes de índices de correlação adequados. Foram feitas simulações hidrológicas para 15 anos em três cenários de uso e ocupação do solo, que foram elaborados de modo a comparar uma mesma área de cobertura florestal em diferentes posições da bacia, em função da presença de solos rasos nas proximidades dos cursos d\'água. Foram analisados, entre os cenários para todo o período simulado: o escoamento total e o de base; parâmetros dos hidrogramas (em eventos selecionados da série histórica); posição do lençol freático; umidade do solo; e, curva de permanência. Os resultados permitiram concluir que na área de estudo não há influência da posição da cobertura florestal em relação aos solos rasos para a produção de água. Devido à existência de poucos trabalhos a campo e, também, de modelagem que abordem o efeito da localização da cobertura florestal na produção de água, incentiva-se a realização de novas pesquisas, necessárias, entre outras razões, para a determinação dos locais prioritários a reflorestar ou manter florestado em programas de conservação ambiental. / Several works related to the theme of water production are being made, having in common the association of forest cover with runoff in watersheds. However, no studies were found where the places where this land cover has optimum effect, because it is dependent on climatic and physiographic conditions of each watershed. The objective of this study is to evaluate changes in water yield caused by the spatial distribution of forest cover in relation to the shallow soils in a watershed. The studies were conducted in the watershed \"Ribeirão dos Marins\" in Piracicaba, SP, Brazil, through the hydrologic modeling using the distributed model GSSHA. For calibration were used data of meteorological, rainfall and stream flow to the years 1999 and 2000, in addition of the hydraulic conductivity and soil water retention curve obtained in laboratory. SPT tests and water infiltration tests were conducted to determine the thickness of the soils and hydraulic conductivity of the saturated zone (water table) in the watershed. The thickness of the soil was represented by a numerical model, based on those thicknesses measures and the model HAND. The depth of the water table was represented by another numerical model, drawn from the soil thickness and depth of field measured. A new methodology that estimates the Manning coefficient from the CN coefficient was used with satisfactory results. In the processes of calibration and validation of the model, the coefficients showed adequate correlation indexes. Hydrological simulations were made for 15 years in three land cover and land use scenarios, which have been prepared in order to compare the same area of forest cover in different positions of the basin, due to the presence of shallow soils near watercourses. Were analyzed, among the scenarios simulated for the entire period: total flow and baseflow; parameters of hydrographs (in selected events of the series); position of the water table, available water content; and flow duration curves. The results showed that in the study area there is no influence of the position of forest cover in relation to shallow soils to the water yield. Because there are few studies that address the effect of the location of forest cover in water yield is encouraged to conduct further research, among other reasons, for the determination of the priority sites to the reforestation in environmental conservation programs.