Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a prototypic autoimmune disease characterized by abnormalities in multiple components of the immune system resulting in progressive damage to multiple organs. Current treatments for SLE are often intensive and result in side effects and the potential for continued flares and progression of disease. Histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes control multiple cellular functions by removing acetyl groups from lysine residues in various proteins. HDAC inhibitors have been investigated as a potential treatment for SLE with promising results, however selective HDAC6 inhibition (HDAC6i) has become a leading candidate for pharmacologic inhibition to reduce the potential for side effects. We hypothesize that HDAC6i will decrease SLE disease by targeting substrates of HDAC6 in multiple components of immunity and organ systems. NZB/W mice were treated with ACY-738 or ACY-1083, followed by evaluation of multiple disease parameters and mechanisms involved in disease pathogenesis within the kidney, bone marrow, and spleen. Within the kidney, HDAC6i decreased glomerular pathology scores, proteinuria, and IgG and C3 deposition. Within glomerular cells, HDAC6i increased alpha-tubulin acetylation and decreased nuclear NF-κB. Within the spleen, there was a dose-dependent decrease in the frequency of Th17 cells and a mild decrease in the frequency of Treg cells. Concurrently, there were decreased levels of IL-12/IL-23 and minimal decreases in TGF-β in the serum. Within the bone marrow, B cell development through Hardy fractions exhibited accelerated progression through later stages as NZB/W mice aged. This accelerated progression may allow B cells to bypass important regulatory checkpoints in maintaining immune tolerance and contribute to autoimmunity. Treatment with an HDAC6i corrected the aberrant B cell development in the bone marrow and RNAseq analysis unveiled six genes (Cebpb, Ccr9, Spib, Nfil3, Lgals1, and Pou2af1) that may play a role in the aforementioned abnormalities. Overall, these findings show that HDAC6i decreased disease in NZB/W mice by targeting multiple components of the immune response, including glomerular cells, T cell subsets in the spleen, and bone marrow B cells. In conclusion, selective HDAC6i is an excellent candidate for pharmacologic therapy for SLE because it targets multiple immune abnormalities involved in SLE pathogenesis while remaining selective and safe. / Ph. D.

<p>Several HIV-1 neutralizing antibodies (e.g. 2F5, 4E10) have been shown to react with self-antigens, suggesting that effective humoral responses to HIV-1 may be constrained by the tolerization of HIV-reactive B cells that also recognize self-antigens. I have tracked the development of 2F5-like HIV-1 gp41 membrane proximal external region (MPER)-reactive B cells throughout ontogeny using B-cell tetramer reagents. In BL/6 mice, MPER-binding populations are lost during normal B-cell development and immunization with HIV-1 MPER antigen does not elicit robust humoral responses. I have identified Kynureninase as a self-antigen that is recognized by 2F5 antibody and, therefore, is a molecule that could mediate the developmental loss of B cells reactive to an epitope shared by HIV gp41 and Kynureninase. To recover these MPER-reactive cells, I describe and characterize a stromal-cell independent culture system that efficiently supports pro-B cell to IgM+ B-cell development with near normal levels of IgH and Igkappa diversity. B-cell development in vitro closely follows the patterns of development in vivo with culture derived (CD) B cells demonstrating characteristic patterns of surface antigen expression and gene activation. Immature and transitional B-cell compartments are reduced, due to the induction of tolerance, in the bone marrow of 3H9 IgH knockin mice ; however, cultures of 3H9 IgH knockin pro-B cells yields high frequencies of "forbidden", autoreactive IgM+ B cells. Furthermore, serum IgG autoantibody exceeded that present in autoimmune, C4-/- animals following the reconstitution of RAG-1-/- mice with IgM+ CD cells derived from BL/6 mice. I show that HIV-1 MPER-reactive B cells are recovered from both BL/6 and 2F5 IgH knockin bone marrow using this in vitro culture system. RAG-1-/- mice reconstituted with these culture-derived B and T cells generate strong germinal center and antibody responses to HIV-1 MPER antigens. These data demonstrate that the humoral immune response to this HIV-1 gp41 MPER antigen can be restored in mice when the constraints of B-cell tolerance have been relaxed.</p> / Dissertation

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B lymphopoiesis requires a network of transcription factors that orchestrate changes in gene expression amidst immunoglobulin gene rearrangement and periods of cell proliferation. Although proteins required for the function of this network have been identified, the precise mechanisms that coordinate these processes as hematopoietic progenitors differentiate into lineage-committed B cells remain unclear. Justy mice display a profound arrest of B cell development at the time of lineage commitment due to a point mutation that decreases expression of the protein Gon4-like. Previous studies suggested that Gon4-like functions to coordinate gene expression and cell division to determine cell fate, but the role of Gon4-like in B lymphopoiesis is largely unknown. Here we demonstrate that Gon4-like is required to regulate gene expression and cell cycle progression in B cell progenitors. Expression of genes required for B cell development is intact in Justy B cell progenitors, yet these cells fail to repress genes that promote the development of alternative lineages. In addition, Justy B cell progenitors are unable to upregulate genes that instruct cell cycle progression. Consistent with this, B cell progenitors from Justy mice show signs of impaired proliferation and undergo apoptosis despite containing elevated levels of activated STAT5, a transcription factor that promotes cell proliferation and survival. Genetic ablation of p53 or retroviral-mediated overexpression of pro-survival factors failed to rescue these defects. In contrast, overexpression of proteins that promote the G1/S transition of the cell cycle, including D-type cyclins, E2F2 and cyclin E, rescued pro-B cell development from Justy progenitors, an effect that was not observed upon overexpression of proteins that function during the S and G2M phases of the cell cycle. Further, overexpression of cyclin D3 led to partial restoration of gene repression in Justy pro-B cells. Notably, Gon4-like interacted with STAT5 when overexpressed in transformed cells, suggesting Gon4-like and STAT5 function together to activate expression of STAT5 target genes. Collectively, our data indicate that Gon4-like is required to coordinate gene repression and cell cycle progression during B lymphopoiesis.

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The developmental processes of lymphopoiesis generate mature B lymphocytes from hematopoietic stem cells through increasingly restricted intermediates. Networks of transcription factors regulate these cell fate choices and are composed of both ubiquitously expressed and B lineage-specific factors. E-protein transcription factors are encoded by the three genes E2A, E2-2 (SEF2-1), and HEB. The E2A gene is required for B cell development and encodes the alternatively spliced proteins E12 and E47. During B lymphocyte development, the cells have to pass several checkpoints verifying the functionality of their antigen receptors. Early in the development, the expression of a pre-B cell receptor (pre-BCR) with membrane-bound immunoglobulin (Ig) heavy chain protein associated with surrogate light chain (SLC) proteins is a critical checkpoint that monitors for functional Ig heavy chain rearrangement. Signaling from the pre-BCR induces survival and a limited clonal expansion. Here it is shown that pre-BCR signaling rapidly down-regulates the SLCs l5 and VpreB and also the co-receptor CD19. Ca2+ signaling and E2A were shown to be essential for this regulation. E2A mutated in its binding site for the Ca2+ sensor protein calmodulin (CaM), and thus with CaM-resistant DNA binding, makes l5, VpreB and CD19 expression resistant to the inhibition following pre-BCR stimulation. Thus, Ca2+ down-regulates SLC and CD19 gene expression upon pre-BCR stimulation through inhibition of E2A by Ca2+/CaM. A general negative feedback regulation of the pre-BCR proteins as well as many co-receptors and proteins in signal pathways from the receptor was also shown. After the ordered recombination of Ig heavy chain gene segments, also Ig light chain gene segments are recombined together to create antibody diversity. The recombinations are orchestrated by the recombination activating gene (RAG) enzymes, other enzymes that cleave/mutate/assemble DNA of the Ig loci, and the transcription factor Pax5. A key feature of the immune system is the concept that one lymphocyte has only one antigen specificity that can be selected for or against. This requires that only one of the alleles of genes for Ig chains is made functional. The mechanism of this allelic exclusion has however been an enigma. Here pre-BCR signaling was shown to down-regulate several components of the recombination machinery including RAG1 and RAG2 through CaM inhibition of E2A. Furthermore, E2A, Pax5 and the RAGs were shown to be in a complex bound to key sequences on the IgH gene before pre-BCR stimulation and instead bound to CaM after this stimulation. Thus, the recombination complex is directly released through CaM inhibition of E2A. Upon encountering antigens, B cells must adapt to produce a highly specific and potent antibody response. Somatic hypermutation (SH), which introduces point mutations in the variable regions of Ig genes, can increase the affinity for antigen, and antibody effector functions can be altered by class switch recombination (CSR), which changes the expressed constant region exons. Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) is the mutagenic antibody diversification enzyme that is essential for both SH and CSR. The AID enzyme has to be tightly controlled as it is a powerful mutagen. BCR signaling, which signals that good antibody affinity has been reached, was shown to inhibit AID gene expression through CaM inhibition of E2A.  SH increases the antigen binding strength by many orders of magnitude. Each round of SH leads to one or a few mutations, followed by selection for increased affinity. Thus, BCR signaling has to enable selection for successive improvements in antibodies (Ab) over an extremely broad range of affinities. Here the BCR is shown to be subject to general negative feedback regulation of the receptor proteins as well as many co-receptors and proteins in signal pathways from the receptor. Thus, the BCR can down-regulate itself to enable sensitive detection of successive improvements in antigen affinity. Furthermore, the feedback inhibition of the BCR signalosome and most of its protein, and most other gene regulations by BCR stimulation, is through inhibition of E2A by Ca2+/CaM. Differentiation to Ab-secreting plasmablasts and plasma cells is antigen-driven. The interaction of antigen with the membrane-bound Ab of the BCR is critical in determining which clones enter the plasma cell response. Genome-wide analysis showed that differentiation of B cells to Ab-secreting cell is induced by BCR stimulation through very fast regulatory events, and induction of IRF-4 and down-regulation of Pax5, Bcl-6, MITF, Ets-1, Fli-1 and Spi-B gene expressions were identified as immediate early events. Ca2+ signaling through CaM inhibition of E2A was essential for these rapid down-regulations of immediate early genes after BCR stimulation in initiation of plasma cell differentiation.

Durant l’ontogénie B, le locus des chaines lourdes d’immunoglobulines (IgH) subit trois processus de réarrangements géniques. Lors des phases précoces du développement B, indépendamment de la rencontre avec un antigène, les réarrangements VDJ permettent l’obtention d’un répertoire d’Ig fonctionnelles. Lors des phases tardives, l’hypermutationsomatique (SHM) permet l’augmentation de l’affinité de l’Ig pour son antigène tandis que larecombinaison isotypique (CSR) modifie ses fonctions effectrices. Ces évènements impliquent l’induction de lésions de l’ADN potentiellement oncogéniques, ce qui impose unerégulation très stricte. Cette régulation est assurée par divers éléments cis-régulateurs répartis tout au long du locus IgH, dont la région régulatrice en 3’ (3’RR). La 3’RR s’étend sur 30 kb et contient quatre activateurs transcriptionnels, les trois premiers formant une structure palindromique. Lors de ma thèse, j’ai utilisé plusieurs modèles murins porteurs de délétions de tout ou partie de la 3’RR pour étudier son rôle, ainsi que celui des différents éléments qui la compose lors des diverses étapes de l’ontogénie B. Nous avons pu déterminer comment la 3’RR régule précisément la CSR en ciblant spécifiquement la région switch acceptrice et caractériser le phénomène encore peu connu de CSR vers IgD. D’autre part, nous avons démontré l’importance de la 3’RR lors de la SHM et dans le développement des différentes sous populations lymphocytaires B. Enfin, la comparaison des résultats obtenus lors de l’analyse des différents modèles nous a permis de déterminer que la structure palindromique de la 3’RR est importante pour une SHM efficace, mais relativement dispensable lors de la CSR. / During B-cell development, the heavy chains locus (IgH) undergoes three genic rearrangement events. During the early stages, before encountering the antigen, VDJ rearrangements allow the generation of a functional Ig repertoire. During the late stages, somatic hypermutation (SHM) increases the affinity of the Ig for its antigen, while class switch recombination (CSR) modifies its effector functions. These events imply thegeneration of potentially oncogenic DNA lesions, and thus require a strict regulation. This regulation is assured by several cis-regulatory elements spread along the IgH locus, including the 3’ regulatory region (3’RR). The 3’RR extends on more than 30kb and contains four transcriptional enhancers, the first three displaying a palindromic conformation. During my PhD, I investigated several mouse models carrying deletion of part or totality of the 3’RR to investigate its role during B cell development. We demonstrated how she precisely regulates CSR by specifically targeting the acceptor switch region, and described the poorly known mechanism of CSR toward IgD. Otherwise, we have demonstrated its importance during SHM and in the correct development of the different B cell subpopulations. Finally, by comparing the results obtained during the analysis of the various mouse models, we have demonstrated that the palindromic structure of the 3’RR is required for optimal SHM, but not for CSR.

Der induzierbare Kostimulator ICOS ist ein zu CD28 strukturell und funktionell verwandtes Molekül, das eine wichtige regulatorische Rolle bei der T-Zelleffektorfunktion spielt. Eine ICOS-Defizienz beim Mensch manifestiert sich in einer schweren Störung des humoralen Immunsystems. Eine murine ICOS-Defizienz führt ebenfalls zu einer Beeinträchtigung der T-Zell-abhängigen humoralen Immunantwort, bei der kleinere oder komplett fehlende Keimzentren zu beobachten sind. Vielfältige in vitro und in vivo Studien führten diese Phänomene auf die beeinträchtigte Regulation von Kommunikationsmolekülen der Zelloberfläche und der Zytokinexpression durch ICOS-defiziente T-Zellen zurück. Ein Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, mit Hilfe von ICOS KO Mäusen den Einfluss von ICOS auf die B-Zellentwicklung genauer zu untersuchen. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass ICOS erst in der späten Phase der B-Zellentwicklung eine Rolle spielt, da der Interaktionspartner von ICOS erst auf transitionellen B-Zellen der Milz exprimiert wird. Durch die Etablierung eines in vivo adoptiven T-B Transfermodells konnte die Rolle von ICOS erstmalig bei der T-B Kooperation in den frühen Phasen der Immunantwort auf der Ebene Antigen-spezifischer T- und B-Zellen aufgeklärt werden. Dabei konnte beobachtet werden, dass eine ICOS-Defizienz einen dramatischen Einfluss auf die B-Zellexpansion und B-Zellproliferation hat. Zum ersten Mal konnte in vivo gezeigt werden, dass ICOS bei der T-B Kooperation eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Regulation diverser Oberflächenmarker der B-Zellen spielt, wodurch die B-Zellaktivierung, B-Zellproliferation und B-Zelldifferenzierung bei der Keimzentrums- und Plasmazellreaktion beeinflusst werden. Histologische Analysen zeigten, dass bei einer ICOS-Defizienz follikuläre T-Helferzellen nicht in die Keimzentrumsumgebung einwandern und daher keine T-Zellhilfe für die B-Zellen anbieten können. Dadurch kann die Keimzentrumsreaktion nicht weiter aufrechterhalten werden und eine Ausbildung von kleineren Keimzentren ist die Folge. Weiterhin konnte beobachtet werden, dass eine fehlende ICOS-Interaktion zwischen T- und B-Zellen zu einer Störung der Plasmazellgenerierung führt, wodurch auch die Mengen an messbaren Serumimmunglobulinen beeinflusst werden. Eine erhöhte Gabe von ICOS-defizienten T-Zellen kann diese Effekte nicht vollständig ausgleichen. Daher ist erkennbar, dass ICOS eine Vielzahl von zusätzlichen Faktoren beeinflusst, die für die ICOS-abhängigen B-Zelleffekte verantwortlich sind. / The inducible costimulator ICOS, structural and functional similar to CD28, plays an important regulatory role in T cell receptor function. The ICOS deficiency in humans is described as a severe dysfunction of the humoral immune response, resulting in dramatic reduced B cell numbers and impaired antibody response against pathogens. The murine ICOS-deficiency also leads to a disturbed T cell dependent immune response resulting in a reduced germinal center formation. Various in vitro and in vivo studies attributes this phenomenon to impaired upregulation of cell surface communication molecules and cytokine synthesis by ICOS-deficient T cells. In this work the investigations with ICOS KO mice should clarify the impact of ICOS in B cell development. As observed, ICOS can only play a role in the late phase B cell development, because the interaction partner is expressed on transitional B cells in the spleen. The establishment of an in vivo adoptive T-B transfer system could determine for the first time the role of ICOS in T-B cooperation in early immune response stages on antigen specific T and B cell levels. As shown, ICOS deficiency influences in a dramatic extend the B cell expansion and B cell proliferation. For the first time in vivo, we could demonstrate that ICOS plays a significant role by influencing the regulation of various B cell surface markers, which affects the B cell activation, B cell proliferation and B differentiation in germinal center or plasma cell reaction. Histological investigations revealed in the ICOS-deficiency that follicular T helper cells could not migrate into the germinal center microenvironment and therefore could not provide T cell help for B cells. As a result, the germinal center reaction could not maintained and therefore the formation of little germinal centers occurred. The missing interaction between T and B cells leads to a dysfunction in plasma cell generation and also influences the detectable amounts of serum immunglobulines. An administration of higher ICOS KO T cell numbers could not fully compensate these effects. Therefore, ICOS bias multitudes of additional factors, which are responsible for the ICOS dependent B cell effects.

The chromatin structure, consisting of DNA and histones, changes dynamically during the cell cycle and cell differentiation. DNA can only be transcribed and replicated when it is packaged loosely, whereas tight packaging allows for more efficient storage. Chromatin remodelling is therefore one of the tools of gene expression control. The chromatin remodelling factors recognise chromatin with varying specificity and have an effect on the interaction between DNA and the histones. One of these factors is the Smarca5 protein. This study investigates the role of Smarca5; its goal is to create a mouse model with the ability to trigger Smarca5 overproduction in specific tissues. This model will be used to study the effect of a high, unregulated dose of Smarca5 on the physiological function of the protein. Previous studies have shown that non-physiological expression of a chromatin-remodelling factor can lead to malignant transformation. Our model can help to understand this process. Another goal of this study is to investigate some phenotype aspects of the mouse model with conditional deletion of Smarca5 in T and B cells, in particular the effects of this deletion on progenitor cell differentiation. Our results show that Smarca5 has an important role in lymphocyte development, and we have observed that...