Master of Science / Division of Biology / Sherry D. Fleming / Professional phagocytes play a critical role in maintaining homeostasis within a host through phagocytic, microbicidal, and inflammatory activity. Complement receptors (CR) and toll-like receptors (TLRs) aid in phagocytosis and stimulate these cells to enhance the immune response. Environmental factors such as hypoxia, prevalent at sites of tissue damage or infection, induce a similar effect. Systemic components such as opsonins may further enhance phagocyte activity. Similar to professional phagocytes, B1 B cells exhibit a broad range of immunological activity as well as expression of CRs and TLRs. Despite extensive studies with other phagocytes, the effects of CRs and TLRs expression, hypoxic stimulation, or opsonization on B1 B cell function remain unclear. We tested the hypothesis that TLR2 stimulation, hypoxia, CR2 expression, or opsonins would enhance B1 B cell phagocytic and inflammatory activity. Negatively selected peritoneal cavity B1 B cells from the (PerC) of wild type, Tlr2[superscript]-[superscript]/[superscript]-, and Cr2[superscript]-[superscript]/[superscript]- mice, or a B1 B-like cell line, Wehi 231, were subjected to normoxia or hypoxia with or without particles for phagocytosis, TLR2 agonists, or CR2 ligands. The PerC of Tlr2[superscript]-[superscript]/[superscript]- mice contained an altered B1 B cell subset distribution while Cr2[superscript]-[superscript]/[superscript]- mice exhibited a normal repertoire. We demonstrated that hypoxia significantly downregulated inflammatory cytokine production by B1 B cells, while upregulating phagocytic activity in a TLR2 or CR2 dependent manner. TLR2 or CR2 deficiency altered constitutive production of B1 B cell associated cytokines. The CR2 ligand C3d, an opsonin, significantly enhanced the phagocytic activity of B1 B cells but failed to stimulate cytokine production. However, Cr2[superscript]-[superscript]/[superscript]- B1 B cells phagocytosed C3d-coated particles suggesting multiple CR may play a role in B1 B cell phagocytosis. Overall, the data suggest TLRs, CRs, hypoxia, and opsonization all contribute to B1 B cell effector function similar to professional phagocytes.

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Sjögren's syndrome (SS) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are characterised by breach of self-tolerance with high affinity circulating autoantibodies and peripheral B cell disturbances in the naïve and memory B cell compartments. In addition, both SS and RA develop functional ectopic B cell follicles in the respective target organs, i.e. the salivary glands and the joint synovium, whereby autoreactive B cell undergo antigen selection and affinity maturation. However, the exact stage at which errors in B cell tolerance checkpoints accumulate is unknown. In this PhD project, I amplified and sequenced Ig VH and VL gene transcripts from single B cells which were FACS sorted either from the peripheral blood of SS patients or from the RA synovium. Healthy donors (HD) were used as controls. Subsequently, I cloned and expressed recombinant monoclonal antibodies displaying identical antigenic specificity of the original B cells. Finally, I tested the poly- and autoreactivity profile of these antibodies against SS and RA-associated autoantigens. In SS, I analysed 353 VH and 293 VL sequences and obtained 114 recombinant antibodies from circulating naïve (n=66) and memory (n=48) B cells of 4 SS patients and compared their autoreactive and polyreactive profile to 45 naïve clones from 2 HD. Analysis of the VH and VL gene usage showed no significant differences between SS and HD. Conversely, I observed accumulation of circulating autoreactive naïve B cells in SS as demonstrated by Hep-2 cells, ENA, Ro/SSA and/or La/SSB reactivity. The elevated frequency of autoreactive naïve B cells in the circulation of SS patients supports the existence of early defects in B cell tolerance checkpoints in this condition In RA, I analysed the Ig gene repertoire and the VH gene somatic mutation rate of 139 VH and 175 VL sequences of synovial CD19+ B cells which demonstrated evidence of antigen selection and hypermutated alpha > gamma > mu VH chains with presence of intra-synovial clonal diversification. Recombinant antibodies from synovial B cell clones were then screened for reactivity towards citrullinated antigens with a plan for a wider analysis using autoantigen microarrays. Overall, these results highlighted the existence of B cell abnormalities and loss of tolerance for self-antigens both in the peripheral and/or lesional compartment of SS and RA. Further analysis of the fine specificity and pathogenicity of recombinant antibodies from autoreactive B cells will be invaluable in order to dissect the mechanisms and the antigens driving the development and the persistence of autoimmunity in RA and SS.

Introdução: as doenças linfoproliferativas de células B maduras correspondem a cerca de 80% das neoplasias linfoides, são caracterizadas pela proliferação clonal de uma célula B precursora em diferentes estágios de diferenciação. A semelhança imunofenotípica a um dado estágio maturativo é relevante para o diagnóstico diferencial através da imunofenotipagem por citometria de fluxo, embora a sobreposição de expressões possa dificultar a identificação correta de cada linfoproliferação. Alguns marcadores são pouco conhecidos nas diferentes linfoproliferações B e há pouca literatura analisando os dados quantitativamente, sendo grande parte qualitativa. Objetivos: este trabalho avalia a expressão quantitativa em intensidade de fluorescência média (IFM) dos anticorpos CD200, CD43, CD52 e CD123 no diagnóstico diferencial das doenças linfoproliferativas B crônicas. Métodos: estudo transversal, com 124 amostras de pacientes em investigação diagnóstica de doenças linfoproliferativas que realizaram imunofenotipagem em um centro de referência em neoplasias hematológicas no período de outubro de 2014 a junho de 2015. Foram analisadas as IFMs de cada marcador nas onze diferentes doenças diagnosticadas. Resultados: as neoplasias dos 124 pacientes analisados foram: 81 leucemias linfocíticas crônicas (LLC), 17 linfomas de zona marginal (LZM), 9 linfomas linfoplasmocíticos (LLPL), 6 linfomas do manto (LM), 2 tricoleucemias (TRL), 2 tricoleucemias variantes (TRLv), 5 linfomas foliculares (LF), 1 linfoma de Burkitt e 1 linfoma difuso de grandes células B (LDGCB). A expressão mediana do CD200 foi de 46,8 (intervalo: 1,5-334). A expressão mediana de CD200 foi maior na TRL (incluindo a TRLv) e na LLC (85 e 61,2, respectivamente). A expressão de IFM do CD200 na TRLv diferiu quando comparado à TRL na sua forma clássica (mediana: 36,1 versus 220,3). A mesma diferença foi observada na expressão do CD123 quando comparada a TRL à TRLv. Verificamos, que casos de LZM demonstraram IFM medianas de CD43 de 7,1 (intervalo: 1,1-106), em comparação a casos de LM e LLC, nos quais as medianas de IFM do CD43 foram 90 e 176, respectivamente. A comparação da intensidade de CD52 entre amostras demostrou diferença estatisticamente significativa entre LLC e LZM com medianas de IFM de 775,5 versus 1297,0 (P=0,04). Conclusões: nossos resultados sugerem que a citometria de fluxo quantitativa desses marcadores pode ser uma ferramenta adicional útil na identificação de alguns tipos de DLPCBs. / Background: lymphoproliferative disorders of mature B cells account for about 80% of the lymphoid malignancies. They are characterized by the clonal proliferation of a B cell precursor at different stages of differentiation. The similarity of a given phenotypical maturation stage is relevant for the differential diagnosis by immunophenotyping, however overlap in cell morphology and immunologic features may difficult the correct identification of each pathology. Some markers are not well known in different B lymphoproliferative neoplasms and there is little literature analyzing the data quantitatively. Objectives: this study evaluated the expression of CD200, CD43, CD52 and CD123 by flow cytometry on B-cell chronic lymphoproliferative disorders (BCLDs) differential diagnosis. Methods: cross-sectional study, of 124 samples from patients for diagnostic investigation of lymphoproliferative disorders who underwent immunophenotyping in a referral center for hematologic malignancies from October 2014 to June 2015. MFIs were analyzed for each marker in eleven different diagnosed pathologies. Results: the diseases of the 124 patients investigated comprised: 81 chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), 17 marginal zone lymphoma (MZL), 9 lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (LPL), 6 mantle cell lymphoma (MCL), 2 hairy cell leukemia (HCL), 2 hairy cell leukemia variant (HCLv), 5 folicular lymphoma (FL), 1 Burkitt lymphoma (BL) e 1 diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL). The CD200 median MFI expression was 46,8 (range: 1,5-334). CD200 was higher in HCL (including HCLv) and CLL cells (85 and 61,2 respectively). HCLv difference in CD200 MFI, when compared to classical HCL (median 36,1 versus 220,3). The same difference in CD123 expression was observed when comparing HCL versus HCLv. We found that cases of MZL exhibited CD43 median MFI of 7,1 (range: 1,1-106), in contrast to cases of MCL and CLL, which had median MFIs for CD43 of 90 and 176, respectively. The comparison of CD52 intensity between CLL and MZL samples showed statistically significant difference with a median MFI of 777,5 versus 1297,0 (P=0,04). Conclusion: our results suggest that quantitative flow cytometry of these markers may be a useful additional tool to better identify some types of BCLDs.

Terminally differentiated B cells are responsible for antibody generation, a key component of adaptive immunity. IgG antibodies play an important role in defence against infection but can be pathogenic in some autoimmune diseases and in solid organ transplantation. In addition to antibody generation, there is increasing interest in the antibody-independent functions of B cells, including their ability to regulate immune responses via the production of IL10. In this thesis I firstly explored the therapeutic potential of belimumab, an anti-BLyS antibody, in an experimental medicine study in kidney transplant recipients. The rationale for this study was based on published studies showing that B cells activate alloreactive T cells and secrete human leukocyte antigen (HLA) and non-HLA antibodies that negatively affect graft function and survival, but may also play a protective role by regulating alloimmune responses promoting transplant tolerance. B-Lymphocyte Stimulator (BLyS) is a cytokine that promotes B cell activation and survival. We performed the first randomized controlled trial using belimumab as early maintenance immunosuppression in kidney transplantation. In belimumab-treated subjects, we demonstrate a reduction in naïve and activated memory B cells, plasmablasts, IgG transcripts in peripheral blood and new antibody formation as well as evidence of reduced CD4 T cell activation and of a skewing of the residual B cell compartment towards an IL10-producing regulatory phenotype. This experimental medicine study highlights the potential of belimumab as a novel therapeutic agent in transplantation. In the second part of my project I performed a preclinical study investigating the potential efficacy of bromodomain inhibitors in reducing antibody-mediated immune cell activation. Immune complexed antigen can activate mononuclear phagocytes (MNP), comprising macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), via ligation of Fc gamma receptors (FcγR), that bind the Fc region of IgG. FcγR-dependent MNP activation results in profound changes in gene expression that mediate antibody effector function in these cells. The resulting inflammatory response can be pathological in the setting of autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and in antibody-mediated rejection in transplantation. BET proteins are a family of histone modification 'readers' that bind acetylated lysine residues within histones and function as a scaffold for the assembly of complexes that regulate gene transcription. Bromodomain inhibitors (I-BET) selectively inhibit the transcription of a subset of inflammatory genes in macrophages following toll-like receptor stimulation. Since MNPs make a key contribution to antibody-mediated pathology, we sought to determine the extent to which I-BET inhibits macrophage and DC activation by IgG. We show that I-BET delays phagolysosome maturation associated with build-up of immune complex (IC) whilst selectively inhibiting IC induced cytokine production. I-BET changed MNP morphology, resulting in a less adherent phenotype, prompting an assessment of its impact on DC migration. In vitro, in a three-dimensional collagen matrix, IgG-IC induced augmentation of DC chemotaxis to chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 19 (CCL19) was abrogated by the addition of I-BET. In vivo, two photon imaging showed that systemic I-BET treatment reduced IC-induced dermal DC mobilisation. Tissue DCs and transferred DC also had reduced migration to draining lymph nodes following I-BET treatment. These observations provide mechanistic insight into the potential therapeutic benefit of I-BET in the setting of antibody-associated inflammation.

Protection from influenza A virus (IAV) challenge requires switched, high affinity Abs derived from long-lived memory B cells and plasma cells. These subsets are generated in germinal centers (GCs), hallmark structures of T helper cell-driven B cell immunity. A full understanding of the acute and persistent GC B cell reaction following respiratory IAV infection is lacking, as is the characterization of IAV-induced T follicular helper (TFH) cells that support GCs. Additionally, it remains unclear as to whether IAV-induced GC B cells are subject to control by regulatory T cells (Tregs). To address this, GC B cell and TFH cell responses were analyzed in mice following pulmonary challenge with IAV. Studies demonstrated that marked GC reactions were induced in lung-draining lymph nodes (dLNs), lung, spleen and nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT), although the magnitude, kinetics, and isotype switching patterns of the response was site-specific, and largely depended on the magnitude of IAV-induced TFH cell populations. TFH cell magnitude peaked prior to that of GC B cells in all tissues, and TFH cells purified from dLNs generated IL-21 and IFN-gamma upon activation, although CD4+CXCR5- T effector cells produced higher levels of all cytokines. IgA+ GC B cells were infrequent in most sites, but composed a significant subset of the switched GC population in NALT. Further, splenectomized mice withstood a lethal recall challenge, suggesting the spleen to be unnecessary for long-term protection. Additionally, GC B cell populations were analyzed at distal time points to assess the understudied, persistent GC B cell response after IAV infection. Our analysis demonstrated that persistent GC B cell populations in mouse lungs directly correlated with infectious dose, pathogenicity of the virus, as well as the presence of long-term CD4+ T cell help. Finally, experiments showed that Tregs contribute to the control of GCs induced in the spleen by IAV challenge. This was demonstrated by a marked increase in the number of total and switched GC B cell numbers when Tregs were either depleted or disrupted in vivo proximal to IAV exposure.

B and T lymphocytes are critical to the adaptive immune response against invading microorganisms. B and T cells develop in the bone marrow and thymus, respectively, and initiate a series of proliferative responses once they encounter their cognate antigen in the peripheral lymphoid organs. These developmental and functional processes are controlled by different networks of transcriptional regulators that repress and activate gene expression. Identifying proteins that activate or repress specific genes and integrating these proteins into their transcriptional networks is critical to understanding lymphocyte development and function. The study of B lymphopoiesis and CD4+ T cell functional responses has greatly increased our understanding of how transcriptional regulators and other proteins cooperate to specify cell fates and responses. While many of the key components of these protein networks have been defined, several factors have yet to be described. Chemically induced random mutagenesis is a powerful tool for identifying genes that have critical biological functions. Justy mutant mice were generated by injecting wild-type mice with of N-Ethyl-N-Nitrosourea (ENU), a mutagen, which generated a unique point mutation in the mouse Gon4-like (Gon4l) gene. This mutation was found to specifically blunt B cell development and impair the functional responses of CD4+ T cells. Given that the Gon4l protein contains domains implicated in transcriptional regulation and B lymphopoiesis and T cell responses are regulated transcriptionally, the aim of this project was to characterize T and B lymphocyte populations from Justy mice and provide insights into the mechanisms underlying the regulation of gene expression during these biological processes. The work presented in this dissertation demonstrates that the protein encoded by Gon4l is essential for B lymphopoiesis, likely through the repression of alternate lineage genes. This work also shows that in CD4+ T cells, decreased Gon4l protein expression results in reduced levels of proliferation in response to exogenous IL-2 or T cell receptor (TCR) engagement. Additionally, Justy mutant CD4+ T cells display a reduced ability to generate IFNγ-producing cells in response to Th1 polarization in vitro. Collectively, these defects correlate with elevated levels of genes known to specifically inhibit the above developmental and functional processes. Thus, this dissertation proposes that Gon4l acts as a transcriptional repressor within the protein networks controlling B lymphopoiesis and CD4+ T cell responses.

Tumor-necrosis factor (TNF)-receptor (R) associated factor 3 (TRAF3) is an important adaptor protein that plays a variety of context-dependent regulatory roles in all types of immune cells. In B cells, TRAF3 mediates signaling downstream of CD40, B cell activating factor (BAFF)-R, and toll-like receptors (TLR)s to restrain B cell survival and function. Downstream of CD40 and BAFF-R, TRAF3 negatively regulates NF-κB2 activation through NF-κB inducing kinase (NIK) stabilization. NF-κB2 activation is important for B cell-homeostatic survival. However, the constitutively active NF-κB2 in other TRAF3 deficient immune cell types does not lead to increased cell survival. More importantly, loss-of-function mutations of the TRAF3 gene are found at relatively high frequencies in B cell malignancies such as multiple myeloma and B cell lymphoma. Therefore, TRAF3 plays a critical and unique role in B cells to restrain cell survival and differentiation that contributes to B cell malignancies. In this study, we aim to identify TRAF3 modulated survival pathways that contribute to homeostatic B-cell survival and B-cell differentiation. We found that TRAF3 degradation was not sufficient or necessary to induce NF-κB2 activation. We also showed that TRAF3 degradation is dependent on association with TRAF2 and cytoplasmic tail of CD40 or BAFF-R. TRAF3 regulation of NIK is important for mature B cell development; however, NIK only partially contributes to TRAF3-mediated B cell survival. TRAF3 also regulates the protein level of proviral integrations of Moloney virus (Pim2), a pro-survival serine/threonine protein kinase encoded by the Pim2 gene, to restrain B cell survival; this regulation can operate independently of the NF-κB2 pathway. Furthermore, we showed that TRAF3 negatively regulates IL-6R signaling, a pathway that contributes to expansion of the plasma cell compartment and to the pathogenesis of multiple myeloma, a plasma cell malignancy. We found that TRAF3 facilitates recruitment of PTPN22, a tyrosine phosphatase, to associate with Jak1 following IL-6 binding to the IL-6R complex. This regulation by TRAF3 restrains plasma cell differentiation, and also provides the first demonstration that PTPN22 regulates cytokine receptor signaling. Collectively, these findings highlight the importance of TRAF3 in the regulation of B cell-specific survival and differentiation pathways. This information could be exploited for more precise and effective therapeutic choices in treatment of B cell malignancies with TRAF3 deficiencies.

Tim-1 (T cell immunoglobulin mucin domain 1) is a transmembrane protein expressed by many cell types, including activated T cells and B cells. Antibodies to Tim-1 have been shown to decrease severity of airway hyperreactivity and Th2 cytokine production in mice. Current literature suggests Tim-1 functions as a co-stimulatory molecule. We hypothesize that Tim-1 signals in lymphocytes, and that Tim-1 signaling modulates allergic airway disease. Chapter one provides a brief overview of current literature exploring identification of the Tim family of receptors, genetic associations between TIM-1 polymorphisms and human diseases, Tim-1 expression, Tim-1 ligands, studies of antibodies to Tim-1 in various mouse models of human disease, and signaling events downstream of Tim-1 engagement. Chapter two provides detailed experimental methodology. Chapter three details the characterization of Tim-1 deficient mice. Tim-1 deficient mice do not exhibit defects in lymphocyte or myeloid cell development, as determined by numbers of cells present in bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes. C57BL/6 Tim-1 deficient female mice appear to develop an increased number of lymph node cells and also develop anti-double stranded DNA antibodies. Chapter four explores the impact of Tim-1 deficiency in a murine allergic airway disease model, which demonstrated that Tim-1 deficient mice developed increased lung inflammation and increased antigen-specific Th2 cytokine production that was evident in mice backcrossed to both BALB/c and C57BL/6 backgrounds. These phenotypes were not evident using purified naïve CD4+ T cells polarized in vitro. As Tim-1 expression is not restricted to CD4+ T cells, adoptive transfer experiments were performed to determine whether the phenotype observed was due to the deficiency of Tim-1 on CD4+ T cells, non-CD4+ T cells, or Tim-1 deficiency on both CD4+ T cells and non-CD4+ T cells. Chapter five explores the impact of Tim-1 deficiency in a chronic Leishmania major intradermal infection model. Tim-1 deficient mice crossed to both BALB/c and C57BL/6 backrounds demonstrated similar parasite burden over the course of time, but in vitro restimulation of lymph node cells revealed a striking increase in cytokine production that extended to Th1, Th2, and Th17 lineages. Tim-1 signaling in murine B cell lines is explored in Chapter six. A Tim-1 monoclonal antibody conjugated to beads induces phosphorylation of Tim-1 and recruitment of the Src family kinase Fyn. This phosphorylation of Tim-1 is reduced in Fyn-deficient B cell lines. Chapter seven discusses the significance of these findings, relates current literature to these results, and provides some avenues for further exploration of Tim-1 function and signaling.