This research arises from personal experience. The thesis is divided into two parts in order to reflect and symbolize the dichotomy which the subject of homosexuality, in general, and gay clergy, in particular, creates within the Church of Scotland. This thesis seeks to explore this dichotomy The Prologue provides an autobiographical backcloth to the research, it acknowledges my own personal experience and seeks to place the debate, with regards to the inclusion of gay clergy in the Church, in context. Chapter One outlines the research methodology and, in particular justifies the use of discourse analysis as an appropriate research tool to investigate the subtext of the Church of Scotland’s 1983 Report of Study Group on Sexuality. Chapter Two focuses on the 1983 Report of Study Group on Sexuality. Although there have been later reports which have dealt with various aspects of sexuality this remains the Church’s official stance on the particular subject of homosexuality. Chapter Three outlines the research methodology for the second part of my research where I interview five members of the clergy who have self-identified as being homosexual. It will justify, as an appropriate research tool, the use of case studies and semi-structured interviews as a means of uncovering information that would be impossible to gain otherwise. Chapter Four contains a summary of the interviews that I have conducted allowing the voices of those who are hidden in the Church to be heard. Chapter Five focuses on the five interviews and identifies common themes which have emerged from the semi-structured interviews and offers theological reflection and explores the wider implications which such reflection implies. The conclusion seeks to offer a way forward in the present climate which will allow gay clergy to play a full part in the life of the Church, free from the current constraints that being open about their sexuality forbids.

This thesis on Calvinist subjectivity within the work of Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) explores how the dialectic of word and image, and subsequently the Word, Logos, and word as rhetoric constructs conceptions of selfhood necessarily associated with and bound by the rhetoric of sinfulness. In contrast to studies that synthesize Edwardsian, and, in turn, Calvinist schemas of sin and selfhood within religious doctrine and treatises, this project examines the experiential nature of sinfulness as expressed through language or poetics. Given such examination, this work posits three things. First, in general terms, it contends that, during the Reformation, the displacement of icons led the Word to acquire the positive and negative functions of religious imagery that it meant to displace: to lead persons to God and to lead them away from him. Second, the project finds that the work of Edwards, which emphasizes feeling and personal spiritual experience, signals another shift in the Calvinist dialectic of word and image, and, then heralds the possibility of a type of ecstatic or ‘sweet’ communion with God outside of sin and language itself. Third, and more particularly, this text argues that despite Edwards’ rhetoric of ‘sweetness’, the geography of sinfulness that both pervades and varies within Edwards’ language, creates a Calvinist subjectivity, as it filters through the word/image dialectic, that becomes trapped within Edwardsian rhetoric, and, in turn, encounters difficulty experiencing the salvation to which it portends. In the end, then, this project both challenges and expands the corpus of Edwards’ scholarship in two ways. First, it demonstrates that, although valuable, sole attention to historical and theological exegesis of Edwards’ texts does not adequately account for the paradoxical tensions and meaning of Calvinist selfhood posed by the Puritan’s work and evidenced by the word/image dialectic. Second, and most importantly, the project indicates that, in actuality, apart from what the majority of Edwardsian, particularly Evangelical, scholarship contends, the ‘sweetness’ and spiritual sensations Edwards speaks of selfhood only partially open to the divine and salvific assurance. True, Edwards can still be celebrated as the Father of American Evangelical thought and practice. This project, however, questions if Edwards’ interpreters have ignored the signposts of his language and created an icon(s) of himself, and, subsequently, of a type of Calvinist selfhood that figures the narrative of their own story. In the end, then, this thesis finds itself back at its beginning as it confronts the nature and work of icons and the possibilities and variances of language—as icon and idol itself—that lay in their wake.

This thesis examines the portrayal of outsider, or ‘stranger’ groups in the series of Protestant martyrologies known as the Livre des Martyrs. The book’s compiler, editor, and publisher, Jean Crespin, placed the defence of religious doctrine as a mark of a true martyr, and a central theme of the book. He also, in the manner of his contemporaries John Foxe and Ludwig Rabus, wished to write a history of the true persecuted Church, which led him to search for martyrs from a wider range of groups who had come into conflict with the Catholic Church. These two impulses, towards theological purity and the inclusion of outsiders, respectively, came into conflict with the inclusion of ‘strangers’ who held views divergent from the French Reformed norm. Comparison of the succeeding editions of the martyrology with each other and, where possible, with the original sources allows us to see that Crespin often altered the content of his narratives, especially by removing theological elements which conflicted with official Reformed doctrine to in effect render their content ‘safer’. The changes that he made to Lutheran and Hussite passages reveal a marked concern with the nature of the Eucharist, one of the primary disputes between Protestant denominations of that period, while omissions from his passages from the German Peasants’ War and the Vaudois reveal an uncertainty about the permissibility of resistance to the State. The Livre des Martyrs, by presenting an idealised vision of the wider Protestant movement allows us some insight into the self-definition of the French Reformed Church, and the ways in which they perceived their relationship to other groups.

Bodleian Library MS Douce 114 contains the unique copy of four Middle English texts, translations of Latin vitae, all describing Continental women saints whose unusual forms of devotion set them apart from the often more sober atmosphere of late-medieval English spirituality in which the texts appeared. The texts first attracted scholarly notice following the publication of The Book of Margery Kempe and the subsequent interest in the lives of the Continental women mystics whom Kempe resembled far more than her own English contemporaries; however, the texts have yet to be examined in any detail. This study investigates both the physical production of the translation and the context of book production in which the manuscript appeared, as well as the ideological context and controversies which would have informed the reading and reception of the texts.

The research presented within this work proposes and develops a new approach to the analysis of early medieval carved stone monuments in North-western Europe. Three data sets of stone monuments, and their associated archaeological sites from disparate regions of north-western Europe—Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia—are considered through a uniquely developed comparative methodology. This comparative approach was developed to create new insights and understanding of the use and functions of stone monuments during the early medieval period. Undeniably, this period witnessed one of the deepest and most significant transformations in European society and culture with the spread of Christianity across north-western Europe. The emergence and establishment of Christianity not only altered the beliefs of people, but also facilitated shifts in power between secular and ecclesiastical elites. The use of carved stone as a medium is an important characteristic in northern societies. And indeed, from the 5th century onwards, these monuments became prominent in the landscape, as objects of devotion and marks of political power, both secular and ecclesiastical. The comparative approach developed for this study encompasses three major themes, place, movement, and monument, through which the case studies selected are analysed and discussed. The results are interpreted from a multi-scaled perspective: on a small level, through the monument, its identity and use as a mnemonic object; on a middle level, through the landscape settings and connection to ancient places; and on a large level, through the use and function of stone monuments within the conversion process and first centuries of Christianisation. For the latter perspective, the relationship between secular elites and the Church is closely examined. Each regional selection is analysed from a holistic perspective comprising the study of the monument, and when available, its landscape setting and place-name, and mentions in historical sources. The results of this research demonstrate that analysing monuments, and their contexts, through a thematic approach rather than a geographical one enables the comparative process to emphasise similarities and contrasts, while allowing deeper understanding and new interpretations. Consequently, this exhibits the need for future research on carved stone monuments utilising the theoretical and methodological approaches developed by this work to further our understanding and interpretations of the place and role of these monuments in the early medieval world.

My thesis brings into conversation, Buddhist spiritual teachings with the medieval contemplative Christian understanding and modern ontological thoughts, to investigate the dynamic characteristics of spiritual transformation. The thesis explores the following questions: Is there a spiritual journey? To what extent the journey itself is the transforming energy? To whom is transformation happening? How do we become the truth uncovered? Have we always been living in a ‘plenum’ with respect to the Buddha nature teaching? Is the Buddha and his teachings revolutionary agents of continuous transformation. Does the spiritual path focus on the cultivation of a Nirvanic-mind only, what about the body? My conversations revealed the following: That it is possible to become aware that conditioned thoughts are thinking the person. That it is possible for the conditioned (klesha) mind to become aware of its own Nirvanic mind-nature. A deluded mind uncovers its own wisdom nature by practising an unconstructed knowing. Thus, the enlightened mind perfects ‘objectless awareness’ and encounters reality as wisdom itself. The transformative power of failure is a yoga and as such it is perfected in the Bodhisattva vow to save all beings. Central to sustaining the spiritual path is to have a question such as ‘Is what I am doing what God is doing’. Life and the spiritual path are unpredictable; the unpredictable challenges the mind’s tendencies to conceptualize experience. The body holds the unpredictable energy of the disowned, which relates to as ‘flashing’ energies in the body. Transformation is the recognition of the first pure moment of awareness which also recognizes that goodness is at the heart of all things. The liberating doctrine is that everything is open (empty) and unbounded thus all matter is redemptive and as such we are always in the realm of truth.

The ancient theory of virtue ethics has been rejuvenated in recent years, and many believe that this ‘new’ approach to ethical theory might not only revitalise the sometimes stale and often intractable nature of contemporary moral debate, but also serve as a viable alternative to traditional normative theories. This thesis aimed firstly to test this claim, and secondly, to construct a modified version which would not only be useful for the theist, but could also serve as a heuristic device for reading the text of the Old Testament. The method employed to conduct this investigation was to identify and critique the essential features of a virtue-based theory, and then suggest theological interpretations of each based on the text of the OT. These interpretations would be subsequently tested through a canonical reading of the Book of Amos. It was found that an Aristotelian form of virtue ethics admitted the closest parallels with the biblical text, and provided the best framework for the construction of a theistic version. But it was also found that virtue ethics, in all its contemporary forms, was unable to justify an account of right action, and so explain the source of normativity. We concluded that, while a theistic version of virtue ethical theory could indeed provide a useful heuristic device for reading the biblical text, virtue ethics alone could not provide a viable alternative to traditional normative theories. However, it was suggested that this shortcoming could be rectified through a partnership with a modified natural law theory.

This thesis explores the significance of Protestantism in North Korean politics, culture and international relations from the 1970s to the early 1990s. It focuses on the activities of the Korean Christian Federation (KCF), against the background of inter-Korean and international relations as well as domestic changes in the Protestant sphere. In the early 1970s, in pursuit of an advantageous position over the South Korean government on issues surrounding inter-Korean relations, the North Korean government began to demonstrate a certain degree of flexibility in foreign policy. However, in the mid-1970s, long-running disputes on inter-Korean issues in the UN General Assembly ended in stalemate, with no clear plan for achieving a generally acceptable compromise. At this point, the DPRK regime turned its attention towards international non-governmental organisations. In order to form a united front against the South Korean government, the DPRK government established several non-governmental organisations, of which the KCF was an example, in order to make contact with these external groups. Two main findings emerged from my analysis of the KCF’s policies. First, the revival of the KCF and Protestant community in North Korea was based on political necessity. In other words, the KCF’s exchange activities with Protestants outside North Korea were political despite their religious identity. Through examining the exchanges between the KCF, overseas Korean Protestants, the World Council of Churches (WCC) and the National Council of Churches in [South] Korea (NCCK), this thesis provides evidence that the DPRK government revived the KCF for the political purpose of gaining the upper hand over the South Korean government in dealing with inter-Korean issues. In particular, what the North Korean regime expected to gain from the KCF’s exchanges with Protestant organisations outside North Korea was moral ascendancy over the South Korean government. Second, from an ecumenical standpoint, the thesis also argued that the political association between the KCF and other Protestant organisations outside North Korea was made possible thanks to their common Protestant identity. In order to associate the KCF with Protestant organisations outside North Korea, the DPRK regime understood that the authenticity of North Korean Protestantism must first be acknowledged by the outside world. To establish the ties of religious kinship, the DPRK not only revived a proper ecclesiastical form, including the establishment of two churches in western style, but also made changes to its legal regulations and even to the national Juche culture, in order to accommodate Protestant activities in North Korea. In this thesis, Gramsci’s theory of hegemony was employed as a research framework to reveal how the DPRK’s policies towards Protestantism were confined not only to the religious sphere, but were often intertwined with politics. Religious policies are therefore considered as a form of implicit cultural policy; that is, an intangible political strategy that produces relevant normative values for stabilising a political regime.

Thomas Traheme (1637?-1674), Hereford born poet, priest and writer, has been variously understood as a nature poet, mystic, or even simply as a facile optimist. Sometimes he has been taken as an honorary Romantic poet, a sort-of Wordsworth before his time. Moreover, it has been common for critics either to divorce his theological beliefs from his literary contribution altogether, or to dismiss his spirituality as undisciplined and immature and his theological views as insubstantial. Based in part on new manuscript evidence, this thesis argues, on the contrary, that Traheme's literary works must be understood in the light of his comprehensive theological vision. Central to this theological vision were the interwoven concepts of felicity, the powers of the human soul, childhood innocence, love and glory, and transfiguration. Transfiguration, for Traheme, was the means by which his goals of felicity, love and glory were attained. For him, the fully human person may by God's grace anticipate even now the experience of final beatitude in which all the powers of the soul are fully employed and enlightened by the Spirit of God. The soul thus transfigured is able in turn 'to transfigure all things, and be delighted' to the glory of God. It is within this sweeping theological vision that Traheme's writings must be understood. It is an articulate vision, rooted in Christian theological tradition and an integrated Renaissance world picture of interdependent spheres, outward and inward, cosmic and anthropological. If we fail properly to appreciate Traheme's theological understanding, then we are in danger of misinterpreting his aesthetic and spiritual contribution. In contrast, when Traheme's devotional prose and poetry are seen in the light of his theological vision, then we are better able to see what Traheme saw - 'a transformed world of glory, inspired with a love as infinite as a creature can hold'. Accordingly, this thesis begins in Chapter 1 with an account of Traheme's biography and his place in the seventeenth century. Chapter 2 reviews the complex story of the Traheme sources, including manuscript discoveries past and present, before turning to a summary of the main lines of interpretation that have emerged in criticism of his writings. Chapter 3 examines the broader context in which Traheme's understanding of transfiguration arises. Chapter 4 traces the ways in which Traheme's anthropology, pneumatology, and eschatology undergird his theological vision of transfiguration. Chapter 5 focuses on a detailed discussion of transfiguration as process and event in Traheme's writings. A final concluding chapter offers a summary account of Traheme's view and demonstrates how this theological vision offers an enriched reading of his devotional prose and poetry while giving particular attention to the concept of transfiguration as action.

Latin use in inscriptions shows evidence of intersections between Roman and Greek languages and culture during the first century CE. Although the provenance for the Gospel of John is not definitively determined, this evidence is present in each proposed location as well as in the text of the Gospel itself (e.g., πραιτώριον in 18:28, 33 and 19:9). This suggests, based on Umberto Eco’s semiotics, that the Roman cultural encyclopaedia could shed light on the Gospel of John, particularly in the Roman trial narrative for a Roman-aware audience. Some words in particular intersect with important Roman concepts: πραιτώριον, βασιλεύς, υἱὸς θεοῦ and ἐξουσία. The phrase Ἰδοὺ ὁ ἄνθρωπος in John 19:5, when analysed from a Roman perspective, seems sufficiently close to hic vir, hic est from Vergil’s Aeneid (6.791) to mark it as a literary allusion. An exegetical analysis of John 18:28—19:22, the passages most imprinted with Latin words and Roman concepts, reveals a Roman Pilate who tests the loyalty of both Jesus and ‘the Jews’ to Caesar. This exegesis, furthermore, provides the data for a social-scientific reading of the passage which constructs a superordinate identity for Romans (and, although outside the main focus of this thesis, for Jews as well). It also conveys a hidden transcript that creates honour for the marginalized Jesus-believers and calls those with power to become vulnerable for the sake of God’s empire. Although others have looked at empire in the Gospel of John, and some have made connections between specific verses and the Roman cultural encyclopaedia (e.g., 19:2), no one has noted the literary allusion in 19:5 nor offered an in-depth and sustained Roman reading of the trial narrative.