The present study is part of the Kaupapa Kereru Programme. The main aim of the programme is to increase the numbers and range of kereru (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) on Banks Peninsula. Home ranges, movements, diet and habitat use of 15 kereru captured in Hinewai Reserve, Banks Peninsula, were investigated from February 2005 to February 2006. Hinewai Reserve is the largest tract of regenerating native forest in a highly modified urban-rural landscape. Phenology of 11 plant species predicted to be key kereru foods, was studied to determine the pattern of food availability in Hinewai Reserve. Twelve radio-tagged kereru resided in the Hinewai Reserve study site (Otanerito Valley and Sleepy Bay) and three resided in Akaroa. Ripe fruit was available from January to August; the height of the fruiting season was in autumn. The bulk of new leaf growth occurred in spring and early summer although new leaves were available on broom and tree lucerne year round. Peak flowering occurred in spring. Kereru in Akaroa ate a total of 21 plant species; six of these species were native and 15 introduced. Kereru in the Hinewai Reserve study site ate a total of 26 plant species; 20 of these species were native and six introduced. Fruit was preferred when readily available. Native fruit appeared to be preferred over fruit of introduced species in Akaroa, where both types were available. New foliage of introduced legumes and deciduous species appeared to be preferred over new foliage of native species at both sites during winter and spring. These species were important food sources prior to the breeding season and may be selected specifically for their nitrogen and protein content. Food is currently not a limiting factor for kereru survival or reproductive success. Considerable variation in the use and preference of vegetation types of individual kereru made it difficult to identify trends in habitat selection. Use and preference for many vegetation types was seasonal; this was certainly because of the availability of food species included in or close to these vegetation types. Overall, native vegetation communities were used more than communities dominated by introduced species and forest communities were used more than non-forest communities. Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) was used most often for non-feeding activities and 67% of observed nests were built in kanuka. Annual home ranges and core areas in the Hinewai Reserve study site (mean of 15.9 and 2 ha respectively) were significantly larger than those found in Lyttelton Harbour, Banks Peninsula in previous research (mean of 8 and 0.08 ha respectively). Home ranges were larger when fruit was eaten, than when no fruit was eaten indicating that kereru are more sedentary when feeding on foliage. Kereru from the Hinewai Reserve study site made no excursions >5 km and no daily movements >2 km. Kereru from Akaroa and Sleepy Bay travelled into Otanerito Valley to feed on horopito in autumn, indicating that there may have been a lack of fruit in their local areas during autumn. No kereru in Otanerito Valley travelled outside of the valley. The distribution of high quality food sources is likely to have caused the observed differences in home range and core area size between localities. Kereru in Lyttelton Harbour may have been restricted to small patches of high quality resources in a study area consisting largely of unsuitable habitat. In Hinewai Reserve, high quality resources were spread over larger areas and were more uniformly distributed. The density of kereru was unknown at both study sites, and this confounded assessment of habitat quality. However, it is likely that the Hinewai Reserve study site would support a higher number of kereru. The main factor limiting population growth in the present study was failure of nests at the egg and chick stage. The fledge rate was 17%. Two of fifteen adult kereru died. Control of predators should be the first aspect of management that is focused on, and will almost certainly increase reproductive success of kereru and loss of breeding adults. As the population of kereru on Banks Peninsula increases due to predator control in existing kereru habitat, food may become a limiting factor. Habitat can be improved for kereru by planting a diverse range of plant species that provide food year-round. Native fruiting species are greatly recommended for habitat enhancement and should be selected so that fruit is available for as much of the year as possible. Native and introduced legumes should also be made available as foods for winter and spring. As most land on Banks Peninsula is privately owned, co-operation and enthusiasm of the community is critical for successful management. Information and support needs to be given to landowners wishing to enhance their properties for kereru.

Hector�s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori) is an endangered coastal species endemic to New Zealand. Their distribution, like other marine organisms, is intertwined with the dynamics of their local habitats, and at a larger scale, the coastal waters around New Zealand. The main purpose of this thesis was to identify specific habitat requirements of this rare dolphin. Hector�s dolphin distribution around the South Island was quantified along several temporal and spatial scales. Large-scale density analyses of abundance surveys found over half of the South Island�s current population occurred within only three main regions. Two of these strongholds are along the west coast and the third is located around Banks Peninsula on the east coast. Smaller-scale analyses at Banks Peninsula found the majority of the dolphin community was preferentially using core regions within the marine mammal sanctuary. Monthly surveys showed that in summer and autumn statistically more dolphins occurred within inshore regions ([less than or equal to]one kilometre), spread throughout the surveyed coastline. From May through winter, dolphin densities rapidly declined. Remaining dolphins were significantly clumped in more offshore waters of eastern regions. The lowest encounter rates occurred between August and September. Certain 'hotspots' consistently had higher dolphin densities throughout the study period while others were preferred seasonally. To address habitat preferences, surveys simultaneously collected oceanographic samples using a CTD profiler. In general, physical variables of the Peninsula�s eastern and southeastern waters varied less, despite being regularly exposed to upwellings and the varied presence of sub-tropical waters. Semi-sheltered bays and shallow inshore waters were highly variable and more susceptible to spatially discrete influences, such as localised river outflows and exchange events. Several hydrographic features were seasonally predictable due to their dependence on climate. The stratification and location of the two dominant water masses (neritic and sub-tropical) accounted for over half of the temporal and spatial variability observed in oceanographic data. Possible relationships between oceanographic features and aggregations of dolphins within Banks Peninsula were examined using global regression and a spatial technique known as geographical weighted regression (GWR). GWR models out-performed corresponding global models, despite differences in degrees of freedom and increased model complexity. GWR results found relationships varied over localised scales that were concealed by global methods. Monthly GWR models suggested the seasonal presence and strength of local oceanographic fronts influenced dolphin distribution. Dolphin aggregations coincided with the steepest gradients between water masses along eastern regions of the Peninsula, and strong exchange events along the edges of the study area. The continued survival of this endangered species is contingent on its protection. Long-term monitoring programmes are needed for the three main strongholds identified in this study. The occurrence of Hector�s dolphin 'hotspots' along frontal zones within Banks Peninsula also suggests alternative and increased protection strategies are needed for this sanctuary to be effective. In light of this thesis� findings and based on marine protection research, future sanctuaries need to consider why Hector�s dolphins are preferentially using particular regions and how their association with certain oceanographic features can help make informed decisions on more appropriate protected areas.

The Lyttelton Volcanic Complex, north-western Banks Peninsula, New Zealand, is comprised of five overlapping volcanic cones. Two magma systems are postulated to have fed Banks Peninsula’s basaltic intraplate volcanism, with simultaneous volcanism occurring in both the north-western and south-eastern regions of Banks Peninsula, to form Lyttelton and Akaroa Volcanic Complexes respectively. The elongate form of Banks Peninsula is postulated to relate to the upward constraining of magmatism in a north-west / south-east fault bounded zone. The Lyttelton Volcanic Complex resulted from the development of a pull-apart basin, with a number of releasing bend faults, controlling the location of eruptive sites. Cone structure further influenced the pathway magma propagated, with new eruptive sites developing on the un-buttressed flanks, resulting in the eruption and formation of a new cone, or as further cone growth recorded as an eruptive package. Each cone formed through constructional or eruptive phases, termed an eruptive package. Eruptive packages commonly terminate with a rubbly a’a to blocky lava flow, identified through stratigraphic relationships, lava flow trends and flow types, a related dyking regime, and radial erosional features (i.e. ridges and valleys). Within the overall evolving geochemical trend of the Lyttelton Volcanic Complex, are cyclic eruptive phases, intrinsically linked to eruptive packages. Within an eruptive package, crystal content fluctuates, but there is a common trend of increasing feldspar content, with peak levels corresponding to a blocky lava flow horizon, indicating the role of increased crystalinity and lava flow rheology. Cyclic eruptive phases relate to discreet magma batches within the higher levels of the edifice, with crystal content increasing as each magma batch evolves, limiting the ability of the volcanic system, over time, to erupt. Evolving magmas resulted in explosive eruptions following effusive eruptives, and / or result in the intrusion of hypabyssal features such as dykes and domes, of more evolved compositions (i.e. trachyte). Each eruptive package hosts a radial dyke swarm, reflecting the stress state of a shallow level magma chamber or a newly developed stress field due to gravitational relaxation in the newly constructed edifice, at the time of emplacement. Two distinct erosional structures are modelled; radial valleys and cone-controlled valleys. Radial valleys reflect radial erosion about a cone’s summit, while cone-controlled valleys are regions where eruptive packages and cones from different centres meet, allowing stream development. Interbedded epiclastic deposits within the Lyttelton lava flow sequences indicate volcanic degradation during volcanic activity. As degradation of the volcanic complex progressed, summit regions coalesced, later becoming unidirectional breached, increasing the area of the drainage basin and thus the potential to erode and transport extensive amounts of material away, ultimately forming Lyttelton Harbour, Gebbies Pass, and the infilled Mt Herbert region. Epiclastic deposits on the south-eastern side of Lyttelton Harbour indicate a paleo-valley system (paleo-Lyttelton Harbour) existed prior to 8.1 Ma, while the morphology of the Lyttelton Volcanic Complex directed the eruptive sites, style and resultant morphology of the proceeding volcanic groups.

Hector�s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori) is an endangered coastal species endemic to New Zealand. Their distribution, like other marine organisms, is intertwined with the dynamics of their local habitats, and at a larger scale, the coastal waters around New Zealand. The main purpose of this thesis was to identify specific habitat requirements of this rare dolphin. Hector�s dolphin distribution around the South Island was quantified along several temporal and spatial scales. Large-scale density analyses of abundance surveys found over half of the South Island�s current population occurred within only three main regions. Two of these strongholds are along the west coast and the third is located around Banks Peninsula on the east coast. Smaller-scale analyses at Banks Peninsula found the majority of the dolphin community was preferentially using core regions within the marine mammal sanctuary. Monthly surveys showed that in summer and autumn statistically more dolphins occurred within inshore regions ([less than or equal to]one kilometre), spread throughout the surveyed coastline. From May through winter, dolphin densities rapidly declined. Remaining dolphins were significantly clumped in more offshore waters of eastern regions. The lowest encounter rates occurred between August and September. Certain 'hotspots' consistently had higher dolphin densities throughout the study period while others were preferred seasonally. To address habitat preferences, surveys simultaneously collected oceanographic samples using a CTD profiler. In general, physical variables of the Peninsula�s eastern and southeastern waters varied less, despite being regularly exposed to upwellings and the varied presence of sub-tropical waters. Semi-sheltered bays and shallow inshore waters were highly variable and more susceptible to spatially discrete influences, such as localised river outflows and exchange events. Several hydrographic features were seasonally predictable due to their dependence on climate. The stratification and location of the two dominant water masses (neritic and sub-tropical) accounted for over half of the temporal and spatial variability observed in oceanographic data. Possible relationships between oceanographic features and aggregations of dolphins within Banks Peninsula were examined using global regression and a spatial technique known as geographical weighted regression (GWR). GWR models out-performed corresponding global models, despite differences in degrees of freedom and increased model complexity. GWR results found relationships varied over localised scales that were concealed by global methods. Monthly GWR models suggested the seasonal presence and strength of local oceanographic fronts influenced dolphin distribution. Dolphin aggregations coincided with the steepest gradients between water masses along eastern regions of the Peninsula, and strong exchange events along the edges of the study area. The continued survival of this endangered species is contingent on its protection. Long-term monitoring programmes are needed for the three main strongholds identified in this study. The occurrence of Hector�s dolphin 'hotspots' along frontal zones within Banks Peninsula also suggests alternative and increased protection strategies are needed for this sanctuary to be effective. In light of this thesis� findings and based on marine protection research, future sanctuaries need to consider why Hector�s dolphins are preferentially using particular regions and how their association with certain oceanographic features can help make informed decisions on more appropriate protected areas.

The efficacy of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) is contingent on it having a design appropriate for the species it is intended to protect. Hector�s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori), a coastal delphinid endemic to New Zealand, is endangered due to bycatch in gillnets. Analyses of survival rate and population viability suggest that the Banks Peninsula population is most likely still declining despite the presence of the Banks Peninsula Marine Mammal Sanctuary (BPMMS), where gillnetting is regulated. More data on distribution and movements of dolphins are therefore required to improve the design of the BPMMS. On aerial surveys of Hector�s dolphin distribution at Banks Peninsula over three years, sightings were made up to 19 n.mi. offshore. On average, 19% of dolphins were sighted outside the BPMMS�s 4 n.mi. offshore boundary in summer, compared to 56% in winter. On similar surveys of the South Island�s west coast, all dolphins were sighted within 6 n.mi. of the coast and there was no seasonal change in distribution. At each location, Mantel tests indicated that distance offshore had the strongest and most consistent effect on distribution. However, a logistic regression model using the combined datasets suggested that distribution was most strongly defined by water depth, with all sightings made inside the 90 m isobath. Boat surveys were carried out at Banks Peninsula (2002 to 2006) to continue the long-term photo-ID project. Using the 22 year dataset, alongshore home-range of the 20 most frequently sighted dolphins was estimated by univariate kernel methods. Mean alongshore range was 49.69 km (SE = 5.29), 60% larger than the previous estimate. Fifteen percent of these individuals had ranges extending beyond the northern boundary of the BPMMS. An acoustic data logger, the T-POD, was trialled for passive acoustic monitoring of Hector�s dolphins. Simultaneous T-POD/theodolite surveys revealed that T-PODs reliably detected dolphins within 200m. No detections were made beyond 500m. To monitor inshore habitat use, T-PODs were deployed in three locations at Banks Peninsula (n = 431 days). A GLM analysis of Detection Positive Minutes (DPM) per day indicated that season had the largest effect on detection rate, with over twice as many DPMs per day in summer (x̄ = 99.8) as winter (x̄ = 47.6). The new findings on Hector�s dolphin distribution and ranging can be used to improve the design of the BPMMS. It is recommended that the offshore boundary of the BPMMS is extended to 20 n.mi. (37 km), the northern boundary is moved 12 km north and recreational gillnetting is prohibited year round. In areas where distribution of Hector�s dolphin has not been studied, the offshore boundary of MPAs should enclose the 100 m isobath.

The efficacy of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) is contingent on it having a design appropriate for the species it is intended to protect. Hector�s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori), a coastal delphinid endemic to New Zealand, is endangered due to bycatch in gillnets. Analyses of survival rate and population viability suggest that the Banks Peninsula population is most likely still declining despite the presence of the Banks Peninsula Marine Mammal Sanctuary (BPMMS), where gillnetting is regulated. More data on distribution and movements of dolphins are therefore required to improve the design of the BPMMS. On aerial surveys of Hector�s dolphin distribution at Banks Peninsula over three years, sightings were made up to 19 n.mi. offshore. On average, 19% of dolphins were sighted outside the BPMMS�s 4 n.mi. offshore boundary in summer, compared to 56% in winter. On similar surveys of the South Island�s west coast, all dolphins were sighted within 6 n.mi. of the coast and there was no seasonal change in distribution. At each location, Mantel tests indicated that distance offshore had the strongest and most consistent effect on distribution. However, a logistic regression model using the combined datasets suggested that distribution was most strongly defined by water depth, with all sightings made inside the 90 m isobath. Boat surveys were carried out at Banks Peninsula (2002 to 2006) to continue the long-term photo-ID project. Using the 22 year dataset, alongshore home-range of the 20 most frequently sighted dolphins was estimated by univariate kernel methods. Mean alongshore range was 49.69 km (SE = 5.29), 60% larger than the previous estimate. Fifteen percent of these individuals had ranges extending beyond the northern boundary of the BPMMS. An acoustic data logger, the T-POD, was trialled for passive acoustic monitoring of Hector�s dolphins. Simultaneous T-POD/theodolite surveys revealed that T-PODs reliably detected dolphins within 200m. No detections were made beyond 500m. To monitor inshore habitat use, T-PODs were deployed in three locations at Banks Peninsula (n = 431 days). A GLM analysis of Detection Positive Minutes (DPM) per day indicated that season had the largest effect on detection rate, with over twice as many DPMs per day in summer (x̄ = 99.8) as winter (x̄ = 47.6). The new findings on Hector�s dolphin distribution and ranging can be used to improve the design of the BPMMS. It is recommended that the offshore boundary of the BPMMS is extended to 20 n.mi. (37 km), the northern boundary is moved 12 km north and recreational gillnetting is prohibited year round. In areas where distribution of Hector�s dolphin has not been studied, the offshore boundary of MPAs should enclose the 100 m isobath.

The present study is part of the Kaupapa Kereru Programme. The main aim of the programme is to increase the numbers and range of kereru (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) on Banks Peninsula. Home ranges, movements, diet and habitat use of 15 kereru captured in Hinewai Reserve, Banks Peninsula, were investigated from February 2005 to February 2006. Hinewai Reserve is the largest tract of regenerating native forest in a highly modified urban-rural landscape. Phenology of 11 plant species predicted to be key kereru foods, was studied to determine the pattern of food availability in Hinewai Reserve. Twelve radio-tagged kereru resided in the Hinewai Reserve study site (Otanerito Valley and Sleepy Bay) and three resided in Akaroa. Ripe fruit was available from January to August; the height of the fruiting season was in autumn. The bulk of new leaf growth occurred in spring and early summer although new leaves were available on broom and tree lucerne year round. Peak flowering occurred in spring. Kereru in Akaroa ate a total of 21 plant species; six of these species were native and 15 introduced. Kereru in the Hinewai Reserve study site ate a total of 26 plant species; 20 of these species were native and six introduced. Fruit was preferred when readily available. Native fruit appeared to be preferred over fruit of introduced species in Akaroa, where both types were available. New foliage of introduced legumes and deciduous species appeared to be preferred over new foliage of native species at both sites during winter and spring. These species were important food sources prior to the breeding season and may be selected specifically for their nitrogen and protein content. Food is currently not a limiting factor for kereru survival or reproductive success. Considerable variation in the use and preference of vegetation types of individual kereru made it difficult to identify trends in habitat selection. Use and preference for many vegetation types was seasonal; this was certainly because of the availability of food species included in or close to these vegetation types. Overall, native vegetation communities were used more than communities dominated by introduced species and forest communities were used more than non-forest communities. Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) was used most often for non-feeding activities and 67% of observed nests were built in kanuka. Annual home ranges and core areas in the Hinewai Reserve study site (mean of 15.9 and 2 ha respectively) were significantly larger than those found in Lyttelton Harbour, Banks Peninsula in previous research (mean of 8 and 0.08 ha respectively). Home ranges were larger when fruit was eaten, than when no fruit was eaten indicating that kereru are more sedentary when feeding on foliage. Kereru from the Hinewai Reserve study site made no excursions >5 km and no daily movements >2 km. Kereru from Akaroa and Sleepy Bay travelled into Otanerito Valley to feed on horopito in autumn, indicating that there may have been a lack of fruit in their local areas during autumn. No kereru in Otanerito Valley travelled outside of the valley. The distribution of high quality food sources is likely to have caused the observed differences in home range and core area size between localities. Kereru in Lyttelton Harbour may have been restricted to small patches of high quality resources in a study area consisting largely of unsuitable habitat. In Hinewai Reserve, high quality resources were spread over larger areas and were more uniformly distributed. The density of kereru was unknown at both study sites, and this confounded assessment of habitat quality. However, it is likely that the Hinewai Reserve study site would support a higher number of kereru. The main factor limiting population growth in the present study was failure of nests at the egg and chick stage. The fledge rate was 17%. Two of fifteen adult kereru died. Control of predators should be the first aspect of management that is focused on, and will almost certainly increase reproductive success of kereru and loss of breeding adults. As the population of kereru on Banks Peninsula increases due to predator control in existing kereru habitat, food may become a limiting factor. Habitat can be improved for kereru by planting a diverse range of plant species that provide food year-round. Native fruiting species are greatly recommended for habitat enhancement and should be selected so that fruit is available for as much of the year as possible. Native and introduced legumes should also be made available as foods for winter and spring. As most land on Banks Peninsula is privately owned, co-operation and enthusiasm of the community is critical for successful management. Information and support needs to be given to landowners wishing to enhance their properties for kereru.

The origin of compositional gaps in volcanic deposits remains controversial. In Akaroa Volcano (9.6 to 8.6 Ma), New Zealand, a dramatic compositional gap exists between basaltic and trachytic magmas. Previously, the formation of more evolved magmas has been ascribed to crustal melting. However, the interpretation of new major and trace element analysis from minerals and bulk-rocks coupled with the mechanics of crystal-liquid separation offers an alternative explanation that alleviates the thermal restrictions required for crustal melting models. In a two-stage model, major and trace element trends can be reproduced by polybaric crystal fractionation from dry melts (less than 0.5 wt.% H2O) at the QFM buffer. In the first stage, picritic basalts are separated from an olivine-pyroxene dominant mush near the crust-mantle boundary (9 to 10 kbar). Ascending magmas stagnated at mid-crustal levels (5 to 6 kbar) and fractionated an olivine-plagioclase assemblage to produce the alkali basalt-hawaiite trend. In the second stage, trachyte melt is extracted from a crystal mush of hawaiite to mugearite composition at mid-to-upper crustal levels (3 to 5 kbar) after the melt has crystallised 50 vol.%. The fractionated assemblage of plagioclase, olivine, clinopyroxene, magnetite, and apatite is left in a cumulate residue which corresponds to the mineral assemblage of sampled ultramafic enclaves. The results of trace element modelling of Rayleigh fractionation using this extraction window is in close agreement with the concentrations measured in trachyte (= liquid) and enclaves (= cumulate residue). The compositional gap observed in the bulk-rock data of eruptive products is not recorded in the feldspar data, which show a complete solid solution from basalt and co-magmatic enclaves to trachyte. Complexly zoned plagioclases further suggest episodical magma recharge events of hotter, more mafic magmas, which lead to vigorous convection and magma mixing. In summary, these models indicate that the Daly Gap of Akaroa Volcano formed by punctuated melt extraction from a crystal mush at the brittle-ductile transition.

Although species maintenance in small forest fragments relies on successful regeneration and recruitment, few studies have examined the effects of fragmentation on regeneration processes. New Zealand's podocarp species rely on large disturbance openings operating across a vegetated landscape to stimulate regeneration. Clearance of vegetation that results in small fragments of forest removes regeneration opportunities for podocarps by destroying the intact vegetation mosaic, and as a result may exclude disturbances of the scale necessary for podocarp regeneration. Fragmentation alters the disturbance regime of the landscape, with important implications for the regeneration of podocarps on Banks Peninsula. The four remaining lowland podocarp-hardwood fragments on Banks Peninsula were sampled to determine the structure and regeneration patterns of podocarps and to assess their long term viability. Density, basal area, and size and age class distributions were used to examine current composition, and in conjunction with spatial analysis, to identify past regeneration patterns and infer likely future changes in composition and population structure. Podocarp size and age class structures for three of the four fragments were characteristically even-sized and relatively even-aged (eg; Prumnopitys taxifolia c. 350 to 600 years), with little or no regeneration for approximately the last 200 years (old-growth fragments). Regeneration of the current podocarp canopy in the old-growth fragments may have been stimulated by flooding. The fourth younger fragment showed much more recent regeneration with Prumnopitys taxifolia, Podocarpus totara and Dacrycarpus dacrydioides mostly 80-160 years old, and substantial populations of seedlings and saplings, probably as a result of anthropogenic fire. In the absence of major disturbance the podocarp component in forest fragments on Banks Peninsula is likely to decline with composition shifting towards dominance by hardwood species. There is some evidence to suggest that canopy collapse will stimulate some podocarp regeneration within the fragments, however it appears to be unlikely that podocarps will persist on Banks Peninsula indefinitely within the fragments studied. There is an urgent need for more quantitative research in New Zealand fragmentation literature, and a need for more emphasis on processes. Banks Peninsula offers potential for a more landscape scale approach in forest management, and the maintenance of regenerating scrub in pockets about the Peninsula may offer the regeneration opportunities for podocarps that are lacking within protected fragments. My study took a quantitative approach in examining the effects of forest fragmentation on the demographics of podocarps and compositional change in forest fragments on Banks Peninsula.