Thesis (MScEng (Electrical and Electronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The electromagnetic and mechanical design aspects of optimally designed doublesided rotor radial flux permanent magnet wind generators with non-overlap aircored (iron-less) stator windings are analysed in this thesis. The wind generator is implemented in a battery charging system for use in rural settlements and farms. The optimal generator and system design is based on an accurate analytical model and is confirmed with finite element analysis. It is shown, amongst other things, that the electromagnetic design and surprisingly not the mechanical design, determines the rotor yoke dimensions and, hence, largely the mass and cost of the generator. Alternative battery charging systems are also considered and discussed. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die elektromagnetiese en meganiese ontwerp aspekte van optimaal ontwerpte dubbel-kant rotor radiale vloed permanente magneet windgenerators met nieoorvleuelende lug kern (sonder yster) statorwindings word in hierdie tesis ontleed. Die windgenerator word geplaas in 'n battery-laai stelsel vir gebruik in landelike nedersettings en plase. Die optimale generator en die stelsel ontwerp is gegrond op 'n akkurate analitiese model en is bevestig met eindige element analise. Daar word onder andere getoon dat die elektromagnetiese ontwerp, en nie die meganiese ontwerp, die rotor juk dimensies en dus grootliks die massa en die koste van die generator, bepaal. Alternatiewe battery-laai stelsels word ook oorweeg en bespreek.

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O presente trabalho tem como principal objetivo construir um conversor CA/CC de baixo custo e elevado fator de potÃncia para o carregamento de baterias. A topologia proposta foi escolhida apÃs uma revisÃo das caracterÃsticas dos retificadores usuais para esse fim. Diferente dos outros, apresenta aspectos de robustez que o tornam apropriado para operar em localidades remotas. O retificador trifÃsico semicontroladoem alta frequÃncia (RTSCAF) à construÃdo com um nÃmero reduzido de chaves semicondutoras. O elevador de tensÃo à alimentado por uma turbina com umgerador sÃncrono a ÃmÃs permanentes (PMSG). Um circuito de controle em malha aberta efetua a comutaÃÃo das chaves para a operaÃÃo no modo de conduÃÃo descontÃnuo (DCM).Esse modo mantÃm as correntes em fase com as tensÃes, resultando em elevado fator de potÃncia e baixa distorÃÃo harmÃnica total (DHT), implicando em eficiente transferÃncia de potÃncia. Foi construÃdo um protÃtipo com potÃncia de saÃda de 250 W, para carregar um banco de baterias de 48 V. Os testes foram realizados com um aerogerador de baixa rotaÃÃo, atà 1 kW, acionado por um motor com variador de tensÃo, emulando as condiÃÃes do vento. Foram obtidos um fator de potÃncia de 0,98 e DHT na corrente de entrada de18%, resultados experimentais que validam a funcionalidade do conversor proposto. / The main objective of this work is to build a low cost CA/CC battery charging with high power factor to small energy wind power supply. The proposed topology has been chosen after a review of rectifiersâ characteristics used for this proposal. Unlike the others proposals, the topology was designed take in a count aspects that make it appropriated to operate in remote areas. A semi controlled three phase rectifier operating in high frequency was built with a reduced numbers of semiconductors. The system is powered by a synchronic generator turbine of permanent magnets A control unit runs in open loop with a control strategy of key switching operating in discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) that ensure high power factor and low harmonic distortion total, improving the power transfer efficiency. The prototype output power was 250 W, it was specified to charge a 48 V battery bank. Tests were conducted in low speed and wind power by 1 kW. A motor was drived as variable voltage charge to emulating wind conditions. Goods results were obtained like a power factor of 0.98 and the input current THD 18%, experimental results was carried out to validate the functionality of the proposed converter.

The European Union has adopted a range of policies aiming at reducing greenhouse gas emissions from road transport, including setting binding targets for tailpipe CO2 emissions for new light-duty fleets. The legislative framework for implementing such targets allows taking into account the CO2 savings from innovative technologies that cannot be adequately quantified by the standard test cycle CO2 measurement. This paper presents a methodology to define the average productivity of vehicle-mounted photovoltaic roofs and to quantify the resulting CO2 benefits for conventional combustion engine-powered passenger cars in the European Union. The method relies on the analysis of a large dataset of vehicles activity data, i.e. urban driving patterns acquired with GPS systems, combined with an assessment of the shading effect from physical obstacles and indoor parking. The results show that on average the vehicle photovoltaic roof receives 58% of the available solar radiation in real-world conditions, making it possible to reduce CO2 emissions from passenger cars in a range from 1% to 3%, assuming a storage capacity of 20% of the 12 V battery dedicated to solar energy. This methodology can be applied to other vehicles types, such as light and heavy-duty, as well as to different powertrain configurations, such as hybrid and full electric.

With an increasing demand for sustainable transport solutions, there is a demand for electrified vehicles. One way to store energy on board an electrified vehicle is to use a lithium-ion battery (LIB). This battery technology has many advantages, such as being rechargeable and enabling reasonably high power output and capacity. To ensure reliable operation of LIB:s, the battery management system (BMS) must be designed with regards to the electrochemical dynamics of the battery. However, since the battery ages over time, the dynamics changes as well. It is possible to predict ageing, but some ageing mechanisms can occur randomly, e.g. due to variations of circumstances during manufacturing, and variations of battery user choices. Hence, by monitoring ageing mechanisms in situ, the BMS can adapt accordingly, similar to a closed loop control system. One ageing mechanism in LIB:s is lithium plating. This mechanism signifies when Li ions are electrochemically deposited as metal onto the negative electrode of the LIB during charging, and can induce other ageing mechanisms, such as gassing or electrolyte reduction. The present project has investigated a method for detecting Li plating in situ after its occurrence by both analysing the voltage change over time during open-circuit voltage (OCV) periods after charging and monitoring battery swelling forces. Results show a correlation between a high probability of Li plating and the appearance of a swelling force peak and an OCV plateau. However, results also show a possible correlation between the onset of Li plating and the onset of the swelling force peak, while also showing a greater detectability of the force signal compared to the electrochemical signal. Furthermore, the present results show that the magnitudes of both signals are probably related to the amount of plated Li. The amount of irreversibly lost Li from plating is shown to have a possible correlation with accumulation of swelling pressure. However, to further validate the feasibility of these two signals, more advanced analysis is required, which was not available during this project. / Med en ökande efterfråga på hållbara transportlösningar så finns det ett behov av elektrifierade fordon. Ett sätt att lagra energi ombord ett elektrifierat fordon är att använda et litium-jon-batteri. Denna batteriteknologi har många fördelar: t.ex. är dessa batterier återladdningsbara, och de kan leverera höga uteffekter samtidigt som de kan ha ett stort energiinnehåll. för att säkerställa en säker drift av litium-jon-batterier måste batteriets styrsystem vara designat med hänsyn till den elektrokemiska dynamiken inuti batteriet. Dock åldras batteriet med tiden, vilket innebär att denna dynamik ändras med tiden, vilket innebär att styrningen av batteriet måste anpassa sig till denna föråldring. Det är möjligt att förutspå åldring av batterier, men vissa åldringsmekanismer kan ske slumpartat, t.ex. via slumpmässiga förändringar i tillverkningsprocessen av batteriet, eller variationer i användningen av batteriet. Genom att därmed bevaka dessa åldringsmekanismer in situ så kan styrsystemets algoritm anpassa sig utmed batteriåldringen, trots dessa slumpartade effekter. En åldringmekanism hos litium-jon-batterier är s.k. litiumplätering. Denna mekanism innebär att litium-joner elektrokemiskt pläteras i form av metalliskt litium på ytan av litium-jon-batteriets negativa elektrod. Mekanismen kan också inducera andra åldringsmekanismer, t.ex. gasutveckling eller elektrolytreduktion. Detta projekt har undersökt en metod för att detektera litiumplätering in situ efter att plätering har skett, genom att både analysera öppencellspänningens (OCV) förändring med tiden direkt efter uppladdning samt analysera de svällande krafterna som uppstår under uppladdning av batteriet. Resultaten visar på en korrelation mellan en hög sannolikhet för litiumplätering och observationen av en topp i svällningskraft och en platå i OCV-kurvan. resultaten visar också en möjlig korrelation mellan påbörjandet av litium-plätering och påbörjandet av toppen i svällningskraft. Vidare visar även resultaten ett troligt samband mellan signalernas magnitud och mängden pläterat litium. Slutligen visar resultaten också ett möjligt samband mellan irreversibelt pläterat litium och ett svällningstryck som ackumuleras med varje uppladdningscykel. Dock krävs det en validering med mer avancerade analysmetoder för att säkerställa användningsbarheten av dessa två signaler, vilket ej var möjligt inom detta projekt.

Fossil fuel consumption throughout the world is drawing attention to the need for alternative energy sources to provide for the large demand for energy. It is becoming more apparent everyday that fossil fuels are unreliable sources of energy due to the volatile pricing of such commodities as well as the toll that these energy sources take on the environment. Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy that when burned to create energy produce bi-products that are extremely harmful to the global environment. Today, renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy are playing larger roles as sources of electricity and are providing new jobs as well as research opportunities both in academia and in industry. It is for this reason that wind turbine energy harvesting is the topic of this thesis and how the efficiency of wind turbine power conversion systems can be improved to become a more viable source of energy. Large wind turbines, along with their power conversion electronics, exist today for the sole purpose of serving a large population of consumers with "green" electricity. Unfortunately, systems designed for low power wind turbines do not utilize advanced methods of maximizing energy draw from wind turbines both from hardware and software point of views. This theses is presents a method of efficient energy extraction and conversion from low power wind turbines to charge lead ac id batteries.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / Quando um conversor opera com uma larga diferenÃa entre os nÃveis de tensÃo de entrada e de saÃda, normalmente à possÃvel identificar uma reduÃÃo significante no seu desempenho. A razÃo disto à o aumento da quantidade de energia processada, que primeiramente precisa ser armazenada em um elemento passivo (indutor), antes de ser entregue à carga. à possÃvel dizer que quÃo maior for a quantidade dessa energia âindiretaâ, menor serà a eficiÃncia do sistema. Tal situaÃÃo à especialmente crÃtica para inversores e retificadores com correÃÃo de fator de potÃncia (PFC), visto que a razÃo cÃclica dos interruptores abrange praticamente todos os possÃveis valores. Em casos em que a diferenÃa entre o valor de pico da tensÃo CA e o valor mÃdio da tensÃo CC à grande, o Ãndice de modulaÃÃo à desviado consideravelmente de 1 e, consequentemente, maiores perdas sÃo esperadas. Para lidar com tal situaÃÃo, à proposto um retificador com caracterÃstica abaixadora e elevadora utilizando uma funÃÃo chamada de bypass. Esta funÃÃo permite que o retificador escolha entre os dois barramentos o que melhor se adapta ao nÃvel de saÃda desejado em funÃÃo do ponto de operaÃÃo da tensÃo senoidal de entrada, maximizando a eficiÃncia. Algumas das vantagens esperadas com a utilizaÃÃo da funÃÃo bypass sÃo: reduÃÃo das perdas totais por meio da operaÃÃo parcial com estÃgio Ãnico; maior nÃmero de nÃveis de tensÃo, reduzindo a corrente de modo comum e o volume do filtro de entrada, alÃm de resultar em menores esforÃos de tensÃo sobre os semicondutores; e, finalmente, reduÃÃo de perdas adicionais e no tamanho do sistema, visto que o conversor Buck de saÃda à projetado para apenas uma fraÃÃo da potÃncia total. Em adiÃÃo, sÃo apresentadas possÃveis configuraÃÃes de conversores de potÃncia para o carregamento de baterias de veÃculos elÃtricos. Topologias de retificadores trifÃsicos com PFC com corrente de entrada senoidal e tensÃo de saÃda controlada sÃo analisadas e propostas, e suas funcionalidades e caracterÃsticas bÃsicas descritas brevemente. FÃrmulas analÃticas para o cÃlculo dos esforÃos de tensÃo e corrente sobre os semicondutores de potÃncia sÃo fornecidas. A fim de avaliar comparativamente o desempenho das topologias selecionadas, fatores adimensionais de referÃncia sÃo definidos com base nos esforÃos elÃtricos sobre os semicondutores e no volume dos indutores. As caracterÃsticas do sistema proposto, incluindo princÃpio de operaÃÃo, estratÃgia de modulaÃÃo, equaÃÃes de dimensionamento e cÃlculos de perdas e eficiÃncia, sÃo descritas em detalhes. Finalmente, a viabilidade do conceito de bypass à demonstrada por meio de resultados experimentais obtidos a partir de um protÃtipo de 22 kW. / When operating with large differences between input and output voltage levels, it is normally possible to identify a significant reduction on the performance of practically all topologies in regard of conversion efficiency. Reason for this is the increasing amount of processed energy that needs to be firstly stored in a passive element (inductor) before reaching the load. It is therefore possible to say that the higher the amount of such âindirectâ energy is; the lower will be the converter efficiency. Such situation is especially critical when considering the operation of inverters or controlled rectifiers with power factor correction (PFC) because the converter sweeps practically all the possible values of duty cycle. In the case the difference between peak AC value and DC value is large; the modulation index will strongly deviate from 1. Consequently, even higher amount of losses are expected. In order to deal with the above referred drawbacks, it is proposed a 5-level three-phase PFC rectifier with an innovative approach, named bypass concept. This function allows the converter to switch between one of the available DC-links that best matches the required output levels depending on the operating point of the sinus wave, thus maximizing the efficiency. Furthermore, the referred bypass function enables direct access to the required lower voltage level by the load, reducing significantly the amount of losses. The 5-level operation allows the voltage steps to be lower than those found in three and two-level topologies, from where lower harmonic contents, reduction of common mode current and EMI are observed. Finally, the output DC-DC converters are designed for only a fraction of the nominal power, having a rather reduced impact on additional losses and also on the converter size. In addition, possible power electronics configurations for charging of EVs are presented. Suitable three-phase PFC rectifier topologies with sinusoidal input currents and controlled output voltage are analyzed and proposed, and their functionality and basic characteristics briefly described. Analytical formulas for calculating the current stresses on the power semiconductors are provided, and in order to evaluate comparatively the performance of selected topologies, dimensionless benchmark factors are derived concerning the semiconductor stresses and the volume of the main inductive components. The characteristics of the proposed system, including the principle of operation, modulation strategy, dimensioning equations and calculated losses and efficiency, are described in detail. Finally, the feasibility of the bypass concept is demonstrated by means of experimental results obtained from a 22 kW hardware prototype.

The thesis deals with lithium accumulators with electronics, which are composed to a unit called Intelligent Battery. Within this thesis, the main features of these accumulators are explained and the circuit to monitor these accumulators has been designed and manufactured, it can disconnect them when the parameters are exceeded, and it stores the history of the battery measurement in memory. It also allows reading of current and logged battery data via UART. The computer application is designed for communication, to display the information and to adjust the battery circuit parameters. The electronics secure charging when the 24V adapter is connected according to the set parameters and it also secure balancing of the individual accumulators.

The general aim of the thesis is a detailed examination of battery charging condition possibility of lead-acid accumulator with the help of pulse current method. The methodology consists of experimental cell testing by pulse battery charging and pulse battery discharging during a progressive change of charging and discharging current as well as charging and discharging time change. The testing procedure proceeds at a various battery charging condition. Principal aim of this work is to compare final voltage dependencies and to establish the usability of pulse current method to determine battery charging condition.