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Thesis (Ph. D.)--Oregon State University, 2010. / Printout. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 173-189). Also available on the World Wide Web.

$ beta$-Galactosidase (E.C. 3.2.1.23) or lactase was produced by the growth of a selected Bacillus subtilis strain (KL88) which was adapted to grow at 10$ sp circ$C. The growth and enzyme production were maximal at 2% (w/v) lactose supplemented with 0.2% (w/v) yeast extract. A Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography system (FPLC) was used for $ beta$-galactosidase purification. The enzyme was purified to 44-fold over the crude extract with a recovery of $ sim$54%. Native-PAGE and SDS-PAGE using "PhastSystem" showed the presence of two isoenzymes having molecular weights of 88 and 170 kD. The purified enzyme showed high activity at low temperatures (10$ sp circ$C) and recorded an optimum pH of 7.0. The K$ sb{ rm m}$ values were found to be 2.21 mM and 28.08 mM for o-nitrophenyl-$ beta$-D-galactopyranoside (ONPG) and lactose, respectively. / $ beta$-Galactosidase from psychrotrophic Bacillus subtilis was specific to the $ beta$-D-glycosidic linkage normally present in lactose. / To investigate the possibility of producing proteinase-free $ beta$-galactosidase from this psychrotrophic microorganism, FPLC was used for the rapid separation of $ beta$-galactosidase.

Among 29 strains of bifidobacteria studied as sources of beta-galactosidase enzyme, Bifidobacterium infantis HL96 showed the highest hydrolytic and transgalactosylic activities. This strain grew well in a MRS medium containing various sugars including lactose, and produced three beta-galactosidases (termed beta-Gal I, II, III). / Two genes, beta-galI and beta-galIII, located on 4.6 and 4.4 kb DNA fragments respectively, were cloned into E. coli, and the nucleotide sequences were determined. The 3,069 by-long beta-galI, encoded a polypeptide with a Mr of 113 kDa. A putative ribosome-binding site and a promoter sequence were recognized at the 5' flanking region of beta-galI. A partial sequence of an ORF transcribing divergently from beta-galI resembled a lactose permease gene. The beta-galIII gene, which is 2,076 bp long, encoded a polypeptide with a Mr of 76 kDa. A rho-independent, transcription terminator-like sequence was found 25 bp downstream of the termination codon. / The amino acid sequences of beta-GalI and beta-GalIII were homologous to those in the LacZ and LacG families, respectively. The acid-base, nucleophilic, and substrate recognition sites conserved in the LacZ family were found in beta-GalI, and a possible acid-base site proposed for the LacG family was located in beta-GalIII, containing a glutamate at residue 160. beta-GalI and beta-GalIII were over-expressed 35 and 96 times respectively in E. coli by using a pET expression system. / Both beta-GalI and beta-GalIII were specific for beta-D -anomeric linked galactosides, but beta-GalI showed more hydrolytic and synthetic activities toward lactose than beta-GalIII. The galacto-oligosaccharides (GaOS) production mediated by beta-GalI at 37°C in 20% (w/v) lactose was 130 mg/ml, which is six times higher than that of beta-GalIII. The yield of GaOS further increased to 190 mg/ml in 30% (w/v) lactose. A major tri-saccharide produced by beta-GalI was characterized as O-beta- D-galactopyranosyl-(1-3)-O-beta-D-galactopyranosyl-(1-4)- D-glucopyranose. / beta-GalI was purified by ammonium sulphate precipitation, and anion-exchange (Mono-Q) and gel filtration (Superose 12) chromatographic steps. The enzyme appeared to be a tetramer, with a Mr of 470 kDa as estimated by native PAGE and gel-filtration chromatography. The optimum temperature and pH for ONPG and lactose as substrates were 60°C, pH 7.5, and 50°C, pH 7.5, respectively. The enzyme was stable over the pH range of 5~8.5, and was particularly active at 50°C for more than 80 min. The enzyme was significantly activated by reducing agents, especially glutathione, as well as by Na+ and K+ cations. Maximal activity required both Na+ and K+ at a concentration of 10 mM. The enzyme was strongly inhibited by p-chloromercuribenzoic acid, and by most bivalent metal ions. Hydrolytic activity using 20 mM lactose as substrate was significantly inhibited by 10 mM galactose. The Km and Vmax values for ONPG and lactose were 2.6 mM, 262 U/mg, and 73.8 mM, 1.28 U/mg, respectively. / The objectives of this research were to characterize beta-galactosidases of B. infantis HL96 at the molecular and biochemical levels, and to over-express the enzymes in Escherichia coli. Two beta-galactosidase isoenzymes with unique properties were genetically characterized for the first time. beta-GalI properties included a neutral pH optimum, relatively higher temperature stability and a high transgalactosylic activity that makes it very competitive for GaOS synthesis. The results were also important for the advancement of knowledge on the catalytic mechanism and the evolutionary aspect of this enzyme.

A beta-galactosidase gene from Bifidobacterium breve B24 which showed the higher hydrolytic and synthetic activity was cloned in E. coli. The complete beta-galactosidase gene contained 2076 bp nucleotides and encoded 691 amino acids which had a high homology to the other Bifidobacterium species. This beta-galactosidase was homologous to that of the LacA family. The galA gene was successfully over-expressed in E. coli ER2566. To observe any change in the recombinant enzyme, beta-galactosidases from Bifidobacterium breve B24 and recombinant E. coli ER2566 were purified to homogeneity by ion exchange chromatography (Mono-Q) and gel-filtration chromatography (Superose-12 and Superdex 200) columns. The molecular mass of both beta-galactosidases was estimated to be 75 kDa on SDS-PAGE. Activity staining on non-denaturing Native-PAGE and Superose-12 gel-filtration chromatography showed that the enzymes are composed of a dimer with a molecular mass of 150 kDa. / The optimum pHs of the native and recombinant enzymes for hydrolyzing O-nitrophenyl-beta-D-galactopyranose (ONPG) were pH 6.0 and 7.0, respectively, and they were stable over the pH range of 5-8 and 6-9, respectively. The optimum temperature of both enzymes for hydrolyzing ONPG was similar at 45 °C and they were stable over the temperature range of 20-45 °C. Both enzymes were stable up to 45 °C during 5 h of incubation at pH 6.5. The recombinant enzyme was slightly activated by bivalent metal ions, Mg2+, Mn2+, and Zn2+ at 1 mM but strongly inhibited by Hg2+ and p-chloromercuribenzoic acid (PCMB). The K m values of both native and recombinant beta-galactosidases for ONPG were 2.77 and 1.82 mM, respectively, and the Vmax values were 1.02 and 1.39 mM/min, respectively. / The two beta-galactosidase activities were also tested with lactose as substrate. The optimum pH of the native and recombinant enzymes for hydrolyzing lactose was similar at pH 6.0. Both enzymes had more than 80 % of their activity in the range of pH 6-8, indicating that the enzymes were stable at neutral pH. However, the native beta-galactosidase had around 40 % of its activity at pH 5.0, whereas the recombinant enzyme had no activity at this pH. On the other hand, the recombinant enzyme had over 50 % of its activity at pH 9.0, while the native beta-galactosidase showed lower than 5 % of its activity. The optimum temperature of both enzymes was at 45 °C. The profiles of both enzyme activities were very similar except at the temperature of 10 °C. The recombinant beta-galactosidase still had around 20 % of its enzyme activity at 10 °C, while no enzyme activity from the native enzyme was detected at this temperature.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Galactooligosaccharides are produced by the transglycosylation activity of β-galactosidases (β-gal, EC 3.2.1.23) when utilising lactose as a substrate. They have emerged as important constituents used in the food and pharmaceutical industries owing to their prebiotic properties. Although transglycosylation was discovered in 1951 (Wallenfels 1951), and a number of β-gals have had their transglycosylation activity characterised, the activities of these enzymes are not optimal for industrial use. Their tendency to favour the hydrolytic reaction over the transglycosylation reaction, coupled with the production of shorter chain oligosaccharides has driven scientists to investigate altering protein structure both to increase chain lengths and the amount of oligosaccharide produced at lower substrate concentrations. In an attempt to alter the amount of oligosaccharide produced by a metagenomically derived β-gal belonging to the glycosyl hydrolase 2 family, random and site-directed mutagenesis were used. A randomly mutagenised library was screened on SOB agar plates containing 5% (w/v) lactose which should select for clones that synthesise oligosaccharides at relatively low concentrations. No such activity was detected. Site-directed mutagenesis was also utilised to alter protein structure. It was confirmed that the β-gal utilised in this study belonged to the glycosyl hydrolase 2 family through mutation of the predicted catalytic acid/base glutamic acid to a non-catalytic residue, thus removing activity. Another mutation was utilised to investigate if it was possible to increase the degree of polymerisation of oligosaccharides produced by the β-gal. This mutation was successful in increasing the degree of polymerisation. Biochemical characterisation of the β-gal revealed that it exhibited optimal activity at pH 8.0, with a temperature optimum of 30°C. The β-gal exhibited a Km and Vmax of 54.23 mM and 2.26 μmol/minute-1/mg protein-1 respectively, similar to kinetic parameters that have been determined for a number of previously characterised enzymes. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Galaktooligosakkariede word geproduseer deur die transglikosileering aktiwiteit van β-galaktosidase (β-gal, EG 3.2.1.23) wanneer hulle laktose as 'n substraat gebruik. Hierdie oligosakkariede het na vore gekom as 'n belangrike bestandeel vir gebruik in die voedsel en farmaseutiese bedryf as gevolg van hulle prebiotiese eienskappe. Alhoewel transglycosylation al in 1951 ontdek is (Wallenfels 1951) en 'n aantal β-gals se transglycosylation aktiwiteit gekenmerk is, is hierdie ensieme nie ideaal vir industriële toepassings nie. Die geneigdheid om die hidrolitiese reaksie oor die transglycosylation reaksie bevoordeel, tesame met die produksie van korter oligosakkariede het wetenskaplikes ondersoek genoop om die proteïenstruktuur te verander om ketting-lengte en die kwantiteit van oligosakkaried geproduseer teen laer substraat konsentrasies te verhoog. In 'n poging om die opbrengs van die oligosakkaried wat deur 'n metagenomiese β-gal wat aan die glycosyl hidrolase 2 familie behoort te verander, is lukraak en terrein gerigte-mutagenese gebruik. Die mutagenese biblioteek is op SOB agarplate met 5% (w/v) lactose gekeur, om klone wat die fenotipe wat verband hou met die produksie oligosakkaried teen relatiewe lae konsentrasies te selekteer. Geen aktiwiteit is opgemerk nie. Terrein gerigte-mutagenese is ook gebruik om die proteïenstruktuur te verander. Deur ‘n bioinformatiese voorspelling, is dit bevestig dat die β-gal wat in hiedie studie gebruik word tot die glycosyl hidrolase 2 familie behoort. Dit is gedoen deur mutasie van die voorspelde katalitiese suur/basis glutamiensuur na 'n nie-katalitiese oorskot, dus die verwydering van aktiwiteit. Nog ‘n mutasie is gebruik om te ondersoek of dit moontlik was om die ketting-lengte van die oligosakkaried wat deur die β-gal geproduseer is te verhoog. Die mutasie was suksesvol in die verhoging van die oligosakkaried wat geproduseer was. Biochemiese karakterisering van die β-gal het getoon dat hierdie β-gal optimale aktiwiteit het by pH 8.0, met 'n optimum temperatuur van 30°C. Die β-gal het 'n Km en Vmax van 54.23 mM en 2.26 μmol/minute-1/mg proteïen-1 onderskeidelik, soortgelyk aan kinetiese parameters wat bepaal word vir ensieme wat voorheen gekenmerk is.

Orientador: Ranulfo Monte Alegre / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-07-20T18:52:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Flores_SimoneHickmann_M.pdf: 3479929 bytes, checksum: 5c22c3b142d6f7436af633378a5e4c36 (MD5) Previous issue date: 1995 / Resumo: Soro de queijo integral e/ou desproteinado por acidificação e aquecimento podem ser utilizados como meio de cultura para produção de lactase de Erwinia aroideae NRRL B-132. A maior atividade de lactase obtida em fermentação de soro de queijo desproteinado (434,10 UI/m1) foi com 55 g/l de lactose, em doze horas de fermentação em erlenrneyer com produção de 1,9 g/l de massa celular seca. A suplememtação do meio de cultura com 5g/1 de asparagina aumentou em 15% a atividade da enzima intracelular e 202% a atividade da enzima extracelular. A temperatura ótima de incubação da enzima para hidrólise de ONPG foi 45°C e pH na faixa de 7,5 a 8,0. Em fermentador de 6 litros variou-se a temperatura de fermentação (25, 27, 30, 32 e 35°C) mantendo-se a taxa de aeração em 1 vvm e rotação de 350 rpm. Obteve-se maior atividade de lactase quando foi utilizado soro de queijo integral. A 30°C a produção em lactase extracelular foi maior e a 32°C houve maior produção de lactase intracelular. Utilizou-se o modelo matemático de Michaelis-Mentem para carac~erizar cineticamente a enzima, obtendo-se o valor para K.m de 3,46, 3,62, 3,85 e 0,60: mM para as temperaturas de 20, 23, 25 e 27°C ,respectivamente. A energia de ativação para K.m, determinada pelo modelo de Arrhenius foi 3.84 Kcal/mol. A inativação da enzima nas temperaturas de 45, 47, 49 e 50°C seguiu cinética de primeira ordem com constante de inativação Kd de 23,20, 47,60, 60,20 e 90,90 mM, respectivamente, e energia de ativação para a desnaturação Ed 51,50 KcaVmol. A enzima apresentou baixa estabilidade quando quando pré-incubada em pH diferente do ótimo por 20 minutos. / Abstract: Production of intra and extracellular /3-galactosidase by Erwinia aroidea grown in cheese whey was studied. Preliminary experiments with edenrneyers and desproteinized cheese whey showed the optimallactose concentration of 5.5% when the lactase activity achieved 434.10 VI/ml and cellular dried mass' 1.9048 g/l for 12 hours culture. Optimals temperature and pH for ONPG hidrolysis was 45°C and 7.5, respectively. Medium culture suplementation with asparagine (5g/l) caused an increase of 15% in intracellular enzyme activity and of 202% in extracellular enzyme activity. Fermentation experi1:nents were carried out in 6 liters fermenter; it was used integral and deproteinized cheese whey under temperatures of 25, 27, 30, 32 and 35° C, 350 rpm and 1 vvm for 12 hours culture. When integral cheese whey was used the largest activity was achieved compared with the deproteinized cheese whey. The production of extracellular enzyme was greater at 30°C and the largest production of intracellular enzyme was obtained at 32°C. Enzyme inibition by temperature ocçured above 32°C. Glucose in culture medium caused enzyme carbon catabolite repression. Kinectis parameters was obtained through Michaelis-Mentem model ; Km for ONPG was 3.46 mM, 3.62 mM, 3.85 mM and 0.5960 mM at 20, 23, 25 and 27°C, respectively. The activation energy for ONPG hidrolysis was 3.84 Kcallmol °K. In stability study, it was obtained Kd values of 23.20 mM, 47.60 mM, 60.20 mM and 90.90 mM at 45, 47, 49 and 50°C, respectively. The activation energy for denaturation was 51.50 Kcal/mol °K. Enzyme low pH stability was observed and this fact means that it must be used around the optimum value (7.5 - 8.0). / Mestrado / Mestre em Engenharia de Alimentos

Orientadores: Francisco Maugeri Filho, Susana Juliano Kalil / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-17T02:58:06Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Manera_AnaPaula_D.pdf: 2066521 bytes, checksum: 108d932fdf16225bc7cd32688323bd02 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: Galacto-oligossacarídeos (GOS) são carboidratos não digeríveis por humanos, produzidos a partir da lactose por ação da enzima ?-galactosidase. São considerados ingredientes prebióticos e possuem propriedades favoráveis à saúde dos consumidores. Este trabalho teve como objetivo o estudo da produção de GOS a partir de células permeabilizadas de Kluyveromyces marxianus CCT 7082. A primeira etapa foi a otimização das condições de cultivo da levedura para a produção da enzima ?-galactosidase empregando como substratos os subprodutos agroindustriais, soro de queijo e água de maceração de milho, obtendo 1400 U/gcel em 24 h de fermentação. Em seguida estudou-se a permeabilização das células da levedura. Foram testados sete agentes permeabilizantes: etanol, isopropanol, butanol, acetona, brometo de cetiltrimetilamônio, Tween 80 e Triton X-100, tendo sido selecionado o isopropanol, para a etapa de otimização do processo de permeabilização, onde se avaliou o efeito da relação biomassa/isopropanol e da temperatura. Na caracterização da enzima, a ß-galactosidase das células permeabilizadas apresentou pH ótimo de 6,6 e temperatura ótima de 50°C, sendo esta mais estável no pH 7,0 e na temperatura de 30ºC. A energia de desnaturação foi 81,6 Kcal/mol. A cinética enzimática da enzima seguiu o modelo de Michaelis-Menten. O estudo da síntese de GOS, através de delineamentos experimentais, empregando as células permeabilizadas, resultou em 83 g/L de GOS. O emprego de fluidos pressurizados como meio reacional de reações enzimáticas podem favorecer a solubilidade dos compostos, as transferências de massa das reações, e aumentar a atividade e estabilidade de enzimas, assim sendo, estudou-se o comportamento da atividade enzimática da enzima das células permeabilizadas tratadas nessas condições. Foi realizado um delineamento composto central para cada fluido (n-butano, propano, CO2), sendo observado um aumento na atividade residual, em todos os ensaios dos delineamentos, de 110 a 211% dependendo do fluido. O tratamento com n-butano resultou na maior estabilidade da enzima: após 3 semanas de armazenamento a 10°C a enzima tratada manteve 96% de sua atividade. Estas células tratadas a alta pressão foram aplicadas na síntese de GOS em reator batelada a pressão atmosférica. Obteve-se aproximadamente 75 g/L de GOS para os três fluidos pressurizados e para as células permeabilizadas sem tratamento. Porém, a quantidade necessária de enzima (em gramas de células) para se obter a mesma atividade enzimática, foi bem menor para as enzimas tratadas a alta pressão, tendo em vista o aumento da atividade enzimática após o tratamento. Na etapa seguinte, estudou-se a síntese de GOS em reator batelada empregando como meio reacional fluidos pressurizados (n-butano, propano, CO2). Realizou-se um delineamento composto central para cada fluido, obtendo-se entre 65 e 83,4 g/L de GOS, dependendo do meio reacional. De acordo com os resultados deste trabalho, usando células de K. marxianus CCT 7082, pôde-se definir a metodologia empregando as células permeabilizadas, tratadas a alta pressão com n-butano e síntese em reator batelada a pressão atmosférica como a mais promissora para a produção de GOS / Abstract: Galactooligosaccharides (GOS) are humans non-digestible carbohydrates, produced from lactose by the action of the enzyme ?-galactosidase. They are considered prebiotic ingredients and have beneficial properties to the health of consumers. This work aimed the study of galacto-oligosaccharide production from permeabilized cells of Kluyveromyces marxianus CCT 7082. The first step was to optimize the yeast culture conditions in order to produce the ?-galactosidase enzyme, employing as substrates by-products from agriculture industries, such as cheese whey and corn steep liquor, it were obtained 1400 U/g in 24 h of fermentation. The next step was to study the yeast cell permeabilization. Seven permeabilizant agents were tested: ethanol, isopropanol, butanol, acetone, cetyl-trimethylammonium bromide, Tween 80 and Triton X-100. Isopropanol was selected for the optimization step of the permeabilization process, where the effect of the biomass/isopropanol ratio and the temperature on cell permeabilization were evaluated. Afterward, the ?-galactosidase from permeabilized cells was characterized presenting the optimum pH of 6.6 and the optimum temperature 50°C. The enzyme was more stable at pH 7.0 and 30°C temperature. The denaturation energy was 81.6 Kcal/mol. The enzyme kinetics followed Michaelis-Menten model. The GOS synthesis, studied through experimental designs, employing the permeabilized cells, resulted in 83 g/L of GOS. The use of pressurized fluids as a reactional medium for enzymatic reactions can help the components solubility and the mass transferences of the reactions and to increase the enzymes activity and stability. Therefore, the behavior of the enzymatic activity of the permebialized cell enzymes, treated with pressurized fluids, was studied. A central composite design was performed for each pressurized fluid, and it was observed an increase on residual activity for all pressurized fluids, in all designs essays, from 110 a 211%, depending on the fluid. The enzyme treated with n-butane resulted in the highest enzyme stability. After 3 weeks of storage at 10°C the enzyme kept 96% of activity. These cells treated at pressure were employed at GOS synthesis in batch reactor at atmospheric pressure. Around 75 g/L of GOS were obtained for all three pressurized fluids, as well as for the enzyme without treatment. However, the amount of the enzyme needed (in g of cells) to obtain the same enzymatic activity was lower in the case of the enzymes treated at high pressure, due to the increase of enzymatic activity after the treatment. In the next step of the work, the GOS synthesis was studied in batch mode, using as a reactional medium pressurized fluids (n-butane, propane, CO2). A central composite design for each pressurized fluid was carried out, obtaining between 65 g/L and 83 g/L of GOS, depending on reactional medium. According to the results of this work, using cells of K. marxianus CCT 7082, it can be defined that the methodology of permeabilized cells, treated at high pressure with n-butane and synthesis in atmospheric pressure reactor, is the most promising one for GOS production / Doutorado / Doutor em Engenharia de Alimentos

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Master of Technology: Biotechnology, Durban University of Technology, 2001. / Kluyveromyces sp. have adapted to existence in milk due to the evolution of permeabilisation and hydrolytic systems that allow the utilisation of lactose, the sugar most abundant in milk. Lactose hydrolysis, to equimolar units of glucose and galactose, is facilitated by a glycoside hydrolase, i.e., β-galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.23). The versatility of this enzyme allows its application in numerous industrial processes, amongst the most significant of which, is its role in the alleviation of lactose intolerance, one of the most prevalent digestive ailments, globally. In this study, β-galactosidase production by Kluyveromyces lactis UOFS y-0939 was initially optimised in shake flask culture with lactose as the sole carbon source, and thereafter, production was scaled up to batch, fedbatch and continuous culture. Shake flask studies revealed optimum conditions of 30°C, pH 7 and a 10% inoculum ratio, to be most favourable for β-galactosidase synthesis, producing a maximum of 0.35 ± 0.05 U.ml-1 when cell lysates were prepared by ultrasonication with glass beads. Batch cultivation in 28.2 and 40 g.L-1 lactose revealed that elevated levels of the carbon source was not inhibitory to β-galactosidase production, as maximum enzyme activities of 1.58 and 4.08 U.ml-1, respectively, were achieved. Cell lysates prepared by ultrasonication and homogenisation were compared and homogenised cell lysates were more than 3.5 fold higher that those prepared by ultrasonication, proving homogenisation to be the superior method for cell disruption. The lactose feed rate of 4 g.L-1.h-1 in fed-batch culture operated at ± 20.4% DO, appeared to be inhibitory to biomass production, as indicated by the lower biomass productivity in fed-batch (0.82 g.L-1.h-1) than batch culture (1.27 g.L-1.h-1). Enzyme titres, however, were favoured by the low DO levels as a maximum of 8.7 U.ml-1, 5.5 fold more than that obtained in batch culture, was achieved, and would be expected to increase proportionally with the biomass. Continuous culture operated at a dilution rate of 0.2 h-1, under strictly aerobic conditions, revealed these conditions to be inhibitory to the lactose consumption rate, however, the non-limiting lactose and high DO environment was favourable for β-galactosidase synthesis, achieving an average of 8 ± 0.9 U.ml-1 in steady state.