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by Ling Ling Peng. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1999. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 107-112). / Abstract also in Chinese. / Abstract --- p.ii / Acknowledgement --- p.iv / Contents --- p.v / Tables and charts --- p.vii / Abbreviation --- p.viii / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction and theoretical considerations --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- One unitary language system、or two separate language systems? --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- The autonomous development hypothesis vs. the interdependent development hypothesis --- p.6 / Chapter 1.3 --- Language dominance --- p.12 / Chapter 1.4 --- The research goal and outline of the thesis --- p.15 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- The development of wh-questions in monolingual English and Cantonese Children --- p.19 / Chapter 2.1 --- The syntax of English wh-questions --- p.19 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- The landing site of wh-expressions --- p.19 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Types of wh-questions --- p.22 / Chapter 2.2 --- The acquisition of wh-questions by monolingual English-speaking children --- p.23 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- The acquisition order of wh-questions --- p.24 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Development of wh-questions in monolingual English-speaking children --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.2.1 --- Developmental stages --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.2.2 --- Overall course of development --- p.27 / Chapter 2.2.2.2.1 --- UG and language acquisition --- p.27 / Chapter 2.2.2.2.2 --- General patterns of development of wh-questionsin monolingual English-speaking children --- p.32 / Chapter 2.3 --- The syntax of interrogative wh-questions in Cantonese --- p.39 / Chapter 2.4 --- The acquisition of wh-questions by monolingual Cantonese children --- p.43 / Chapter 2.5 --- Summary --- p.45 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Methodology / Chapter 3.1 --- Subject --- p.47 / Chapter 3.1.1 --- Family background --- p.47 / Chapter 3.1.2 --- Input for both languages --- p.47 / Chapter 3.1.3 --- Bilingual development in the bilingual child --- p.49 / Chapter 3.2 --- Taping --- p.55 / Chapter 3.3 --- Transcription --- p.56 / Chapter 3.4 --- Sampling and data analysis --- p.56 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- The acquisition of wh-questions by one Cantonese-English bilingual child --- p.58 / Chapter 4.1 --- UG and bilingual acquisition --- p.58 / Chapter 4.2 --- The acquisition of wh-questions in Cantonese by the bilingual child --- p.59 / Chapter 4.3 --- The acquisition of wh-questions in English by the bilingual child --- p.66 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- The acquisition order --- p.66 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Position of wh-expressions --- p.68 / Chapter 4.3.3 --- Subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-questions --- p.77 / Chapter 4.4 --- Summary --- p.81 / Chapter Chapter 5 --- Discussion and conclusion --- p.82 / Chapter 5.1 --- The acquisition order of wh-questions in the bilingual child's English --- p.82 / Chapter 5.2 --- Placement of wh-expressions in the bilingual child's English --- p.86 / Chapter 5.3 --- Subject 一 auxiliary inversion in wh-questions in the bilingual child's English --- p.93 / Chapter 5.4 --- Overall course of development of what-questions in the bilingual child --- p.94 / Chapter 5.5 --- Conclusion --- p.100 / Chapter 5.5.1 --- Summary of findings --- p.100 / Chapter 5.5.2 --- Suggestions for further studies --- p.102 / References --- p.107 / Appendix --- p.113

Chan Wing Shan Angel. / Thesis submitted in: Novemeber 2003. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2004. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 152-157). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgements / List of Abbreviations / List of Tables and Figures / Abstract / Chapter Chapter One --- Introduction / Chapter 1.0 --- Introduction / Chapter 1.1 --- The Target Construction / Chapter 1.1.1 --- The Canonical [bei2-T-R] Double Object Form / Chapter 1.1.2 --- The Non-Canonical [bei2-R-T] Double Object Form / Chapter 1.1.3 --- The Non-Canonical [bei2-T-bei2-R] Serial Verb Form / Chapter 1.1.4 --- The Extended bei2-Da.tive / Chapter 1.2 --- A Review of Cantonese Dative Constructions / Chapter Chapter Two --- Theoretical Background / Chapter 2.0 --- Introduction / Chapter 2.1 --- The Markedness Hypothesis / Chapter 2.2 --- The Iconicity Hypothesis / Chapter 2.3 --- The Input Frequency Hypothesis / Chapter 2.4 --- Relevance to Cantonese / Chapter 2.4.1 --- The Markedness Hypothesis: Empirical Predictions / Chapter 2.4.2 --- The Iconicity Hypothesis: Empirical Predictions / Chapter 2.4.3 --- The Input Frequency Hypothesis: Empirical Predictions / Chapter 2.4.4 --- An Interim Summary of Empirical Predictions / Chapter 2.5 --- The Null Dative Marker Hypothesis / Chapter 2.6 --- Conceptualization of End-State Knowledge: Construction Grammar / Chapter 2.7 --- Introducing the Usage-Based Theory to Child Language Acquisition / Chapter Chapter Three --- The Input Properties Hypothesis and Adult Cantonese Input / Chapter 3.0 --- Introduction / Chapter 3.1 --- Schematization / Chapter 3.2 --- The Input Properties Hypothesis / Chapter 3.3 --- Two Empirical Hypotheses on the Theme-Recipient Asymmetry / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Unexpressed Arguments: The Theme Versus The Recipient / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Susceptibility to Displacement: The Theme Versus The Recipient / Chapter 3.4 --- A Corpus Study Of Adult Input / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Methodology For Adult Input Analysis / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Corpus Findings / Chapter 3.4.2.1 --- The Missing Theme: bei2-Datives with Frequent Null Theme / Chapter 3.4.2.2 --- The Non-Canonical [bei2-R-T] Form / Chapter 3.4.2.3 --- The Non-Canonical [bei2-T-bei2-R] Form / Chapter 3.4.2.4 --- The Frequent [bei2-R] Sequence / Chapter 3.5 --- Cantonese Adult Input Properties: Implications for Early Schematization / Chapter 3.6 --- Chapter Summary / Chapter Chapter Four --- Methodology and Early Developmental Findings / Chapter 4.0 --- Introduction / Chapter 4.1 --- Methodology / Chapter 4.1.1 --- Longitudinal Corpus Data / Chapter 4.1.1.1 --- Monolingual Child Data: The Hong Kong Cantonese Child Language Corpus (CANCORP) / Chapter 4.1.1.2 --- Cantonese-English Bilingual Child Data: The Hong Kong Bilingual Child Language Corpus / Chapter 4.1.2 --- "Cantonese-English Bilingual Diary Data: Cheung (2002, p.c.)" / Chapter 4.1.3 --- Clinical Child Data: Local Speech Therapists in Hong Kong / Chapter 4.1.4 --- Procedures for Data Analysis / Chapter 4.2 --- Early Developmental Findings / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Non-Full bei2-Datives Before Full bei2-Datives / Chapter 4.2.2 --- The First Spontaneous Use of Full bei2-Datives / Chapter 4.2.3 --- All Full bei2-Datives Attested / Chapter 4.2.4 --- Early Preference for Non-Canonical Forms / Chapter 4.2.4.1 --- Possible Priming Effects / Chapter 4.2.4.2 --- Placement of Pauses / Chapter 4.2.5 --- The Late Acquisition of the Canonical [bei2-T-R] Form / Chapter 4.2.6 --- The Non-Target Use of bei2-Datives / Chapter 4.2.6.1 --- The Non-Target [bei2-R-T] Form / Chapter 4.2.6.2 --- The Non-Target [bei2-T-bei2-R] Form / Chapter 4.3 --- Usage Patterns in Older Children / Chapter 4.4 --- Summary of Major Findings / Chapter Chapter Five --- Discussion of Findings / Chapter 5.0 --- Introduction / Chapter 5.1 --- A Review of Established Empirical Predictions / Chapter 5.2 --- The Markedness Hypothesis / Chapter 5.3 --- The Iconicity Hypothesis / Chapter 5.4 --- The Input Frequency Hypothesis / Chapter 5.5 --- The Input Properties Hypothesis / Chapter 5.6 --- Markedness From the UG perspective / Chapter 5.7 --- The Early Preference for Non-Canonical Forms: A Functional Perspective / Chapter 5.8 --- The Source of the Early Non-Canonical bei2-datives: A Usage-Based Perspective / Chapter 5.8.1 --- The Early [bei2-R-T] Form / Chapter 5.8.1.1 --- Against Learning Directly From The Adult Speech Models / Chapter 5.8.1.2 --- Against Generating Directly From The [bei2-R-T] Verb Specific Schema / Chapter 5.8.1.3 --- Against Overgeneralizing the Abstract [V-R-T] Schema / Chapter 5.8.2 --- The Early [bei2-T-bei2-R] Form / Chapter 5.8.2.1 --- Against Learning Directly From The Adult Speech Models / Chapter 5.8.2.2 --- On Overgeneralizing The [V-T-bei2-R] Schema / Chapter 5.9 --- Remaining Questions / Chapter 5.10 --- Chapter Summary / Chapter Chapter Six --- Conclusions and Further Research / Chapter 6.0 --- Introduction / Chapter 6.1 --- Principal Conclusions / Chapter 6.2 --- Contributions / Chapter 6.3 --- Suggestions for Further Research / Chapter 6.3.1 --- Elicited Production Studies / Chapter 6.3.2 --- Comprehension Studies / Chapter 6.3.3 --- Cross-Linguistic Investigations / Appendices / References

本文研究兩位粤英雙語兒童的詞彙發展，當中以研究他們的名詞及動詞發展模式為主。在過往關於兒童詞彙發展的文獻中，很多學者均對於名詞傾向(noun bias)是否屬於普遍存在(universal)的現象，存着不少的討論。大部份學者於英語等語言中發現此名詞傾向，並認為是由於名詞概念對兒童而言較為明顯及容易掌握的緣故。然而，在普通話及粤語等語言中，學者並未能找出此名詞傾向，並認為原因是這些語言的結構特徵都比較強調動詞，例如代名詞省略(pro-drop)等。本文透過語料庫，追蹤性研究兩位粤英雙語兒童的詞彙發展，並把結果與相應的單語兒童作比較，從而討論詞類傾向的跨語言共性(universality)及語言特定(language-specific)的因素，以及在詞彙發展中的跨語言互動(cross-linguistic influence)。 / 本文的研究結果，顯示了在兒童的詞彙發展中，名詞傾向屬於語言特定(language-specific)的現象，而非所有語言的共性。在整段由1;06至3;00追蹤期之中，單語及雙語兒童的英語詞彙發展均持續地出現了名詞傾向的現象，而這現象並沒有在粤語中出現。英語的名詞比例平均維持在60%以上，英語名詞也發展得比動詞快。相反，在整段追蹤期之中，粤語的名詞比例均比英語的小。語言特定的因素(language-specific factors)，包括零論元是否被認可(licensing of null arguments)，以及名詞及動詞的詞彙化模式(lexicalization patterns of nouns and verbs)，能以解釋為何名詞傾向能在英語中找到，而不能在粤語中找到。 / 另外，本研究也發現粤英雙語兒童的詞彙發展中的跨語言互動(cross-linguistic influence)，他們粤英之間的名詞及動詞對應詞(translation equivalents)收窄了這兩種語言之間在名詞及動詞比例上的差異。英語方面，比例上，雙語兒童比單語兒童獲得更多動詞。由於粤語的語言結構特徵較強調動詞，因此雙語兒童首先獲得很多粤語動詞，這促使他們獲得這些動詞的英語對應詞(English equivalents)，從而降低了其英語名詞比例。而粤語方面，比例上，雙語兒童比單語兒童獲得更多名詞。由於英語的語言結構特徵較重視名詞，因此雙語兒童首先獲得很多英語名詞，這促使他們獲得這些名詞的粤語對應詞(Cantonese equivalents)，從而提升了其粤語名詞比例。 / This thesis investigates the lexical development in two Cantonese-English bilingual children, focusing on the developmental patterns of their nouns and verbs. In the literature, a controversial issue centres on whether the noun bias is universal in children’s lexical development. Many researchers have found a noun bias in English and other languages, and attributed it to the advantage that the concepts encoded by nouns are easier and more salient for children. However, the noun bias was not observed in children acquiring languages like Mandarin and Cantonese, and some researchers have attributed this to properties of these languages including pro-drop which favour verbs. We conduct a longitudinal corpus-based study of two bilingual children in comparison with their monolingual counterparts, to address the issues of universality and language-specific effects of word category bias and cross-linguistic influence at the lexical level. / The findings show evidence that the noun bias is language-specific but not universal in the lexical development of children. A noun bias was consistently shown in English but not in Cantonese for both monolingual and bilingual children throughout the period of investigation from 1;06 to 3;00. In English, the proportion of nouns to nouns + verbs remained greater than 60% on average and nouns always developed faster than verbs. In contrast, whereas the proportion of nouns to nouns + verbs in Cantonese remained lower than that in English for the entire period of investigation. We argue that language-specific factors such as the licensing of null arguments and the lexicalization patterns of nouns and verbs can account for the differences in the occurrence of noun bias in children’s lexical development in English and Cantonese. / Evidence for cross-linguistic influence is also observed in the lexical development in Cantonese-English bilingual children. Their translation equivalents for nouns and verbs between English and Cantonese narrow the differences in the proportion of nouns and verbs between these two languages. In English, the bilingual children acquired proportionately more verbs than their monolingual counterparts. Having acquired many verbs first in Cantonese, a pro-drop language which favours verbs, facilitated the bilingual children’s acquisition of the English equivalents of these verbs, leading to a decrease in the proportion of nouns to nouns + verbs in English. In Cantonese, the bilingual children had a greater proportion of nouns than their monolingual peers. Having acquired many nouns first in English, a non-pro-drop language which favours nouns, facilitated the bilingual children’s acquisition of the Cantonese equivalents of these nouns, resulting in the increase in the proportion of nouns to nouns + verbs in Cantonese. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Shum, Ka Yee. / "December 2012." / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 161-168). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstracts also in Chinese; includes Chinese. / Abstract --- p.i / Acknowledgements --- p.v / List of Tables --- p.viii / List of Figures --- p.x / List of Abbreviations --- p.xii / Table of Contents --- p.xiii / Chapter Chapter 1: --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- The “noun bias“ in early lexical development --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Definition of word categories --- p.2 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Differences in the distinction of word categories across languages --- p.2 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Definitions of nouns and verbs --- p.3 / Chapter 1.3 --- Defining the “noun bias“ --- p.5 / Chapter 1.3.1 --- Criteria for “noun bias“ in the acquisition --- p.5 / Chapter 1.3.2 --- Criteria for “noun bias“ in this thesis --- p.7 / Chapter 1.4 --- Issues in bilingual lexical development --- p.9 / Chapter 1.5 --- Organization of the thesis --- p.11 / Chapter Chapter 2: --- Issues in Early Lexical Development --- p.14 / Chapter 2.1 --- Gentner’s (1982) claim: The noun bias is universal --- p.14 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Natural Partitions Hypothesis --- p.14 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Relational Relativity Hypothesis --- p.15 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- Gentner’s study of monolingual children acquiring six languages (1982) --- p.16 / Chapter 2.1.4 --- Gentner and Boroditsky’s study of Navajo-speaking children (2009) --- p.17 / Chapter 2.1.5 --- Other studies of monolingual children in favour of the noun bias --- p.19 / Chapter 2.2 --- Tardif’s (1996) claim: The noun bias is language-specific --- p.21 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Tardif’s studies of monolingual children acquiring Chinese languages (1996, 2006b, 2008) --- p.21 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Other monolingual studies arguing against the noun bias --- p.27 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Factors leading to the non-existence of a noun bias --- p.29 / Chapter 2.3 --- Reasons for conflicting results --- p.34 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Different methods of sampling children’s vocabulary data --- p.34 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Different ages of the children --- p.35 / Chapter 2.4 --- Previous cross-linguistic longitudinal studies in lexical development --- p.36 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Liu’s comparative study of lexical development in English, Mandarin and Cantonese (2007) --- p.37 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Dhillon’s comparative study of lexical development in English, Spanish and Mandarin (2010) --- p.38 / Chapter 2.5 --- Previous studies of lexical development in bilingual children --- p.39 / Chapter 2.5.1 --- Bilingual studies involving two European languages --- p.40 / Chapter 2.5.2 --- Bilingual studies involving an European language and an Asian language --- p.41 / Chapter 2.6 --- Research Questions --- p.44 / Chapter Chapter 3: --- Hypotheses and Methodology --- p.46 / Chapter 3.1 --- Universality of early noun advantage --- p.46 / Chapter 3.2 --- Language-specific properties in relation to lexical category bias --- p.47 / Chapter 3.3 --- Cross-linguistic influence --- p.49 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Cross-linguistic influence in the domain of syntax --- p.49 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Cross-linguistic influence in the domain of lexicon --- p.50 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- Language dominance --- p.51 / Chapter 3.4 --- Methodology --- p.52 / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Subjects --- p.53 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- The monolingual and bilingual data --- p.56 / Chapter 3.4.3 --- Classification of nouns and verbs in Cantonese and English --- p.57 / Chapter 3.4.4 --- Data analysis --- p.68 / Chapter 3.5 --- Summary --- p.73 / Chapter Chapter 4: --- Results and Discussion --- p.74 / Chapter 4.1 --- Lexical composition in early English --- p.75 / Chapter 4.1.1 --- Number of noun types and verb types and N/(N+V) ratios in English --- p.75 / Chapter 4.1.2 --- Number of noun tokens and verb tokens in English --- p.76 / Chapter 4.1.3 --- Cumulative nouns and verbs in English --- p.77 / Chapter 4.1.4 --- Differences between Cantonese-English bilingual children and the monolingual English-speaking child --- p.79 / Chapter 4.1.5 --- Comparison between Cantonese-dominant and English-dominant bilingual children --- p.84 / Chapter 4.1.6 --- Summary --- p.84 / Chapter 4.2 --- Lexical composition in early Cantonese --- p.85 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Number of noun types and verb types and N/(N+V) ratios in Cantonese --- p.85 / Chapter 4.2.2 --- Number of noun tokens and verb tokens in Cantonese --- p.87 / Chapter 4.2.3 --- Cumulative nouns and verbs in Cantonese --- p.88 / Chapter 4.2.4 --- Differences between Cantonese-English bilingual children and the monolingual Cantonese-speaking child --- p.91 / Chapter 4.2.5 --- Comparison between Cantonese-dominant and English-dominant bilingual children --- p.95 / Chapter 4.2.6 --- Summary --- p.99 / Chapter 4.3 --- Translation equivalents of nouns and verbs in Cantonese-English bilingual children --- p.100 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- English nouns and verbs with Cantonese equivalents --- p.100 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Cantonese nouns and verbs with English equivalents --- p.104 / Chapter 4.3.3 --- Summary --- p.109 / Chapter 4.4 --- Comparison of lexical composition between Cantonese and English of the bilingual children --- p.109 / Chapter 4.4.1 --- Proportion of nouns to verbs on the basis of word types and cumulative development --- p.110 / Chapter 4.4.2 --- Language-specific considerations in early lexical development --- p.113 / Chapter 4.4.3 --- Summary --- p.124 / Chapter 4.5 --- Analysis of morphological and syntactic markings on nouns and verbs in Cantonese-English bilingual children --- p.124 / Chapter 4.5.1 --- Morphological and syntactic markings on English nouns and verbs --- p.125 / Chapter 4.5.2 --- Morphological and syntactic markings on Cantonese nouns and verbs --- p.130 / Chapter 4.5.3 --- Summary --- p.141 / Chapter 4.6 --- Summary of major findings --- p.141 / Chapter Chapter 5: --- Conclusions --- p.145 / Chapter 5.1 --- Conclusions --- p.145 / Chapter 5.2 --- Limitations and suggestions for further research --- p.147 / Appendices --- p.149 / Chapter Appendix 1: --- Translation equivalents for nouns and verbs in Cantonese-English bilingual children --- p.149 / Chapter Appendix 2: --- Total tokens of five most frequent nouns and five most frequent verbs produced by each child in each language --- p.160 / References --- p.161

The digit span test has long been used in the study and evaluation of memory processes in children. The study of memory processes in bilingual children has received only limited attention. The purpose of the present study was to examine the influences of bilingual interference, English proficiency, and item familiarity on a task of short-term memory. One-hundred nineteen third grade subjects were assigned to one of four groups based on their language background and ethnicity. Subjects were administered the Digit Span subtest from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised in English as well as a test of general ability, the Coloured Progressive Matrices, and a reaction time measure, item identification. The data were analyzed using ANOVA and multiple regression procedures. Results showed that Mexican-American bilingual subjects who were proficient in English performed comparably to monolingual Mexican-American subjects. These results were discussed in terms of their support for the dual storage and independence positions of bilingual memory. Results of the data analysis also revealed a small but significant direct causal link between English proficiency level and digit span. This finding was discussed in terms of its support for the use of digit span measures with bilingual Mexican-American children providing the students have been determined to be proficient in English on a standardized measure. A final finding of the present study concerned the absence of a role for item familiarity as an intervening variable between English proficiency level and digit span. Results showed a direct association between English proficiency level and reaction time, but no significant association between reaction time and digit span. Implications of the current findings were discussed in relation to relevant theory and prior research findings.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, Department of Psychology at the University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy October 2016. / Literacy in multilingual contexts includes social and cognitive dimensions (GoPaul-McNicol & Armour-Thomas, 1997). Becoming literate carries with it the ability to develop and access higher-order thinking skills that are the building blocks for cognitive academic language proficiency, as well as the means that define educational opportunities (Bialystok, 2007). South Africa has 11 official languages and a multilingual education policy but South African schools are able to determine their language of instruction policy of monolingualism or multilingualism (Heugh, 2010). This raises the question of whether monolingualism or bilingualism influences children’s successful acquisition of reading. It is important to investigate the effect this has on reading processes and skills of monolingual and bilingual children because this issue has received limited research attention while it contributes to our greater understanding of how children’s cognitive capacities for literacy attainment are either constrained or promoted through broader social factors operating in a child’s literacy-learning environment (Bialystok, 2007; Vygotsky, 1978). Cognitive processing and reading skills were assessed in monolingual and bilingual children at a public school in an urban area of Johannesburg. An English-speaking monolingual group with English as the language of instruction (N = 100) was compared with a Zulu-English bilingual group with Zulu as first language (L1) speaking proficiency and English as second language (L2) literacy experience (N = 100) on measures of reading, phonological awareness, vocabulary skills, and working memory. Performance in cognitive processing and reading skills of these two groups was compared to an Afrikaans-English bilingual group (N = 100) with dual medium instruction. Tests of language proficiency confirmed that the Afrikaans-English bilinguals were balanced bilinguals and that the Zulu-English bilinguals were partial bilinguals. Aim and method: The purpose of this study was to expand knowledge in the field of second language reading acquisition and language of instruction by examining the impact of language related factors on the cognitive development and literacy competence of monolingual and bilingual children in the South African context. The central tenet of the bio-ecological approach to language, cognitive and reading assessment is that language acquisition is inseparable from the context in which it is learned (Armour-Thomas & Go-Paul-McNicol, 1997). Drawing from this approach, the present research project investigated the effects of the level of orthographic transparency on reading development in the transparent L1 and opaque L2 of biliterate Afrikaans-English bilinguals learning to read in a dual medium school setting. The effects of oral vs. written language proficiency in the L1 on the acquisition of L2 English reading was also investigated by examining whether reading processes and skills transferred from one language to another and the direction or nature of this transfer in partial and balanced bilinguals. Finally, whether a balanced bilingualism and biliteracy Cognitive processing skills and literacy development in monolingual and bilingual children in South Africa vi experience had beneficial effects on cognitive tasks demanding high levels of working memory capacity, was investigated. Results: Reading in Afrikaans – the more transparent orthography – reached a higher competency level than reading in the less transparent English. Dual medium learners and L1 English monolingual learners acquired reading skills in their home language(s) at a higher level than L2 English with L1 Zulu speaking proficiency learners did. Dual medium learners outperformed both monolingual learners and L2 English with L1 Zulu speaking proficiency learners on tests of phonological awareness, working memory, and reading comprehension. They also reached similar competency levels in tests of vocabulary knowledge than monolingual English (L1) learners. These differences translated into different relationships and strengths for reading attainment in monolingual and bilingual children. These findings provide support for a language-based and context-dependent bio-ecological model of reading attainment for South African children. Conclusions: Bilingual children who are exposed to dual medium reading instruction programmes that value bilingualism philosophically and support it pedagogically create optimal conditions for high levels of cognitive development and academic achievement, both in the first and in the L2. Absence of mother tongue instruction and English-only instruction result in a reading achievement gap between emergent Zulu-English bilinguals and English monolinguals. This effect is not observed in the biliterate Afrikaans-English bilinguals; instead, these children performed better than the English monolinguals on many English tasks and working tasks requiring high levels of executive control and analysis of linguistic knowledge, despite English being their L2 while learning to concurrently read in Afrikaans and English. Arguments for and (misguided) arguments against dual medium education are examined to identify the consequences of translating this model of education into effective schooling practices, given the socio-political contexts in which educational reforms take place at local schools and in communities (Heugh, 2002). More broadly, good early childhood education includes a rich language learning environment with skilled, responsive teachers who facilitate children’s literacy learning by providing intentional exposure to and support for vocabulary and concept development. Classroom settings that provide extensive opportunities to build children’s reading competences are beneficial for young dual language learners no less than for children acquiring literacy skills in a one-language environment (Cummins, 2000; Heugh, 2002). / GR2017

The purpose of this study is to investigate family factors in relation to young Chinese immigrants' code-switching and language maintenance. Specific attention is given to children's code-switching behaviour and how parents respond and the effect of parental response upon children's language choice in any subsequent utterance. Attempts are also made to identify the family factors that might have an effect on making language choice. Data were collected monthly through naturalistic tape-recording of families' conversations for one calendar year. Recordings of every other month were transcribed and coded for analysis. A questionnaire was used with the children's parents to obtain general family background information as well as to compare the parents' language beliefs and their actual language behaviour in real life.Results indicated that within an average of 28.1 months of stay in New Zealand, the use of Mandarin Chinese, their ethnic language, was dramatically reduced. In typical family conversations, the parents were using Mandarin Chinese in only 75.6% of their conversational turns and that figure for the children was 65.1%. If the amount of mother tongue use at home is an indicator, then the speed of shift in these families investigated appears to be relatively fast. Few parents, however, felt that their children were using too much English or ever attempted to stop them doing this, despite the fact that all the parents claimed that they very much wanted their children to maintain the ethnic language and were fully aware of the importance of their role as the main input source of their ethnic language. This seems to suggest that the marketplace value of the mainstream language is overtaking the core value of their ethnic language.Results also showed that parental use of English caused a substantially increased use of English from their children. There tended to be an "upgrading" towards English in the children's language choice suggesting that code-switching could be a temporary stage for the children along the gradual process of language shift. On the other hand, the parents were also found using more English after their children's code-switching. One of the reasons for this might be that the parents want to improve their English and regard their children as an ideal person to practise English with.With regard to daily communication functions, results showed that children often resorted to English for daily speech acts indicating that language function replacement has occurred for many daily communicative functions resulting from a gradually reduced use of the ethnic language.Many family factors were found to be affecting language use in the families: the presence of grandparents and the decision to return to their birth country for residence in the future were clearly correlated with increased use of the ethnic language; the parents' level of English language, on the other hand, was found to be related to the amount of English used, though with exceptions.These results strongly suggest that English is taking over the family domains that used to belong to the ethnic language. Parents who want their children to maintain their ethnic language need to put daily effort into action. Without painstaking daily effort, language shift will and probably is happening no matter how strong their theoretical beliefs might be.

This study set out to investigate the connections between language retention and identity construction among young bilingual Spanish-speaking children from Latin American backgrounds living in urban communities in Sydney, It provides a critical examination of the complex articulation between languages, identity and education. The thesis proposes that there are significant cultural, social and political forces involved in language retention in childhood and that these forces mediate and shape identity construction in bilingual children. Much of the research literature on childhood bilingualism draws on dominant and established psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic theories of bilingualism and language learning. These theories do not fully explain the impact of broader sociological processes that impact on home language retention and identity construction in young children. Consequently, in early childhood and primary education, pedagogical understandings of bilingualism and language retention have focussed narrowly on learnability issues and cognitive development. Established theories of bilingualism have not fully articulated the intersections between language retention and identity construction in the early years of children’s lives, where the formation of identity is constantly negotiated, transformed and contested amidst a background of hegemonic English-speaking social fields such as in prior-to-school, school and other community settings. This thesis begins in Chapter One by providing an overview of the limitations of these psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic theories in making connections between identity construction and language retention for children of particular immigrant minority groups. Chapter Two reviews the literature and research. There has been little research in Australia into how bilingual families and their children negotiate identity and language retention. The thesis explores the proposition that the dominance of English and discourses of monolingualism legitimise institutional and educational practices that position young bilingual children, families and educators into marginalised situations in everyday social relations. It is against this field that the research reported here investigated how such sociological factors represent a significant force in children’s lives by impacting on their retention of their home language. Chapter Three introduces the key theoretical concepts used in this study which draws on Bourdieu’s theory of social practice (1990, 1991) and the theoretical resources of cultural studies informed, in particular, by concepts from Hall (1992, 1996) and Bhabha (1994, 1998). These conceptual tools enable the study to examine ways in which identity construction and bilingualism accumulate social, cultural and linguistic capital in selective cultural fields, and how these may hinder or promote the retention and learning of languages in children. Chapter Four overviewed the research methodology involved in this study. It incorporated quasi-ethnographic, case study and interpretative approaches using questionnaires, informal interviews, participant observations, field notes, children’s work and the collection of documentation. The research process began as a pilot study in which 5 adults and 3 children participated. Three interrelated phases followed. The participants in the study included 25 children and 29 family members, including grandparents and parents with different family structures from extended, blended, interethnic and interracial families. An additional 34 caregivers and teachers working in prior-to-school and school settings participated. The first phase involved 14 interviews of parents and grandparents. The second phase involved a case study of parents and their children attending an after-school Spanish Community Languages Program. I interviewed and surveyed 26 children, 13 parents, and 2 staff members. Finally, in the third phase, I surveyed 30 practitioners working with Spanish-speaking Latin American children in prior-to-school and school settings were. The investigation involved the documentation and analysis of young children’s bilingual experiences using Spanish and English in a range of social fields, such as family life, educational and community settings. As the children and their families are the focus of this study, the children’s views about growing up with two languages, and family perspectives and aspirations about living, working and raising children in multicultural/multilingual communities, form the basis of the investigation. Furthermore, the data analysis involved the examination of the evidence to ascertain how the power relations in educational and community settings shape and influence children’s negotiation of identity and the retention of Spanish. Likewise, data relating to caregiver and teacher attitudes towards bilingualism and language retention were also analysed. Chapter Five details the links between diaspora, hybridity and diversity apparent in the cultural histories and heterogeneous make-up of the families and their children. Analysis of the links between Spanish language retention and diversity show that diversity in families is a significant but not conclusive factor in what constituted success in language retention in young children. This analysis examines of the multiple ways in which the families and their children constructed their identities. The influences these constructions have on speaking Spanish were analysed to demonstrate the connections between language retention and identity construction. Chapter Seven draws on the children’s views, experiences and preferences for speaking Spanish to analyse how the linguistic habitus enables the accumulation of cultural and social capital in speaking Spanish across a variety of social fields. Finally, Chapter Eight provides an analysis of how teachers’ and caregivers’ attitudes towards bilingualism and language retention can impede or promote opportunities for children’s language retention. In particular, the evidence indicates that the lack of institutional and structural support for community languages had a direct impact on children’s interest in using Spanish in both mainstream and non mainstream educational settings. Four key findings emerged through the data analysis presented in the evidentiary chapters of this thesis. First, diaspora and hybridity highlighted the significance of the heterogeneity in Latin American families. Second, it was revealed that multiple constructions of identity mediated everyday lived experiences of being bilingual. Third, the linguistic habitus was significant in shaping children’s identity across different social and cultural fields. Fourth, teacher and caregiver attitudes and pedagogical practices towards bilingualism and language retention shaped children’s identity construction and opportunities for using Spanish. In conclusion, this study revealed that there is a strong connection between identity construction and language retention in young bilingual children. In particular, the study highlights the significance of multiplicity and hybridity in shaping identity which in turn forms dispositions that can enable the formation, reproduction and transformation of cultural and social capital. This study investigated the broader sociological factors associated with growing up bilingual and how these mediate and shape children����s understanding of themselves and their families, in terms of how they negotiate two (or more) linguistic codes. Hence, the study has contributed towards a reframing of understandings about bilingualism and language retention in childhood. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Thesis (M. A.)--University of Hong Kong, 2006. / Title proper from title frame. Also available in printed format.

Thesis (M. Phil.)--University of Hong Kong, 2001. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 127-136).