Os flavonoides são um grupo diversificado de compostos polifenólicos que podem ser encontrados na natureza e também sintetizados. A gama de atividades biológicas e o potencial para reduzir o risco de doenças crônicas tem motivado a comunidade científica a desenvolver métodos de síntese de compostos desta classe. Neste sentido, as reações de biotransformação são estratégias interessantes com grande potencial para modificar as estruturas de flavonoides naturais e sintéticos. Este estudo teve como objetivo a biotransformação de derivados de flavonoides por fungos de ambiente marinho. Assim, os derivados de flavonoides 2\'-hidroxichalconas (1a-h), 2\'-hidroxi-diidrochalcona (2a), flavanona (3a) e flavan-4-ol (4a) foram usados como substratos em reações biocatalisadas por células totais de fungos de ambiente marinho. As condições reacionais foram otimizadas variando-se o pH e a composição nutricional do meio reacional. Dessa forma, foi realizada uma triagem com oito fungos derivados de ambiente marinho (Penicillium raistrickii CBMAI 931, Cladosporium sp. CBMAI 1237, Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 935, Penicillium oxalicum CBMAI 1996, Penicillium citrinum CBMAI 1186, Mucor racemosus CBMAI 847, Westerdykella sp. CBMAI 1679 e Aspergillus sclerotiorum CBMAI 849) utilizando a 2\'-hidroxichalcona 1a como substrato. A partir da triagem foram selecionados os fungos P. raistrickii CBMAI 931 e A. sydowii CBMAI 935 para serem aplicados com outros derivados de flavonoides. As reações empregando o fungo P. raistrickii CBMAI 931 resultou preferencialmente na hidrogenação da ligação Cα=Cβ das 2\'-hidroxichalconas substituídas (1a-h) com a formação das 2\'-hidroxi-diidrochalconas (2a-h) com conversões que variaram de 25 a 83% em 14 dias de reação. Também foi realizada uma triagem com dez fungos derivados de ambiente marinho (Fusarium sp. CBMAI 1830, Acremonium sp. CBMAI 1676, Aspergillus sp. CBMAI 1829, A. sydowii CBMAI 935, P.oxalicum CBMAI 1996, P. citrinum CBMAI 1186, P. raistrickii CBMAI 931, Cladosporium sp. CBMAI 1237, M. racemosus CBMAI 847 e Westerdykella sp. CBMAI 1679) para a biotransformação da flavanona 3a. A biotransformação da flavanona 3a resultou na formação de produtos de biorredução, hidroxilação e clivagem de anel. As reações empregando os fungos Cladosporium sp. CBMAI 1237, Westerdykella sp. CBMAI 1679 e Acremonium sp. CBMAI 1676 levou preferencialmente a biorredução do grupo cetônico da flavanona 3a para formação do flavan-4-ol 4a correspondente. Os fungos Acremonium sp. CBMAI 1676 e Cladosporium sp. CBMAI 1237 foram então utilizados para reduzir uma série de flavanonas 3b-g meta e para substituídas, onde os flavan-4-ois foram isolados com bons rendimentos (67-87%), porém com baixa seletividade. O fungo P. raistrickii CBMAI 931 também apresentou potencial para obtenção de diidrochalconas a partir de flavanonas, assim como os fungos A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e Fusarium sp. CBMAI que além de produzirem diidrochalconas ainda promoveram a hidroxilação da mesma. Assim, os fungos de ambiente marinho P. raistrickii CBMAI 931 e A. sydowii CBMAI 935 foram eficientes na biotransformação de derivados de flavonoides com controle quimio- e regiosseletivo. Os fungos de ambiente marinhoutilizados mostraram-se como uma fonte de enzimas ene redutases, álcool desidrogenases e monoxigenases ao mediar eficientemente a biotransformação de derivados de flavanoides. / Flavonoids are a diverse group of polyphenolic compounds that can be found in nature and synthesized. The range of biological activities and the potential to reduce the risk of chronic diseases has motivated the scientific community to develop methods of synthesis of compounds of this class. In this sense, biotransformation reactions are interesting strategies with great potential to modify the structures of natural and synthetic flavonoids. This study aimed at the biotransformation of flavonoid derivatives by marine environment fungi. Thus, the flavonoid derivatives 2\'-hydroxychalconas (1a-h), 2\'-hydroxy dihydrochalcone (2a), flavanone (3a) and flavan-4-ol (4a) were used as substrates in biocatalysed reactions by total cells of fungi of marine environment. The reaction conditions were optimized by varying the pH and nutritional composition of the reaction medium. In this way, eight marine-derived fungi (Penicillium raistrickii CBMAI 931, Cladosporium sp. CBMAI 1237, Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 935, Penicillium oxalicum CBMAI 1996, Penicillium citrinum CBMAI 1186, Mucor racemosus CBMAI 847, Westerdykella sp. 1679 and Aspergillus sclerotiorum CBMAI 849) were screened to perform the biotransformation of 2\'-hydroxychalcone 1a. From the screening, the fungi P. raistrickii CBMAI 931 and A. sydowii CBMAI 935 were selected for applied with other flavonoid derivatives. The reactions using the fungus P. raistrickii CBMAI 931 resulted preferentially in the hydrogenation of the Cα-Cβ double bond of the substituted 2\'-hydroxychalconas (1a-h) to led formation of 2\'-hydroxy-dihydrochalcones (2a-h) with good conversions (25 to 83%) in 14 days of reaction. It was also carried out a screening with ten fungi derived from marine environment (Fusarium sp. CBMAI 1830, Acremonium sp. CBMAI 1676, Aspergillus sp. CBMAI 1829, A. sydowii CBMAI 935, P. oxalicum CBMAI 1996, P. citrinum CBMAI 1186, P. raistrickii CBMAI 931, Cladosporium sp, CBMAI 1237, M. racemosus CBMAI 847 and Westerdykella sp, CBMAI 1679) for the biotransformation of flavanone 3a. The biotransformation reaction resulted in the biorreduction of flavanona 3a, hydroxylation and ring cleavage of the products. Reactions by Cladosporium sp. CBMAI 1237, Westerdykella sp. CBMAI 1679 and Acremonium sp. CBMAI 1676 preferably led to the reduction of the pro-chiral ketone of flavanone to form the corresponding flavan-4-ol. The fungi Acremonium sp. CBMAI 1676 and Cladosporium sp. CBMAI 1237 were used to reduce a series of substituted flavanones, where flavan-4-ols were isolated in good yields (67-87%), but with low selectivity. The fungus P. raistrickii CBMAI 931 presented potential for produce dihydrochalcones from flavanones, as well as the fungi A. sydowii CBMAI 935 and Fusarium sp. CBMAI that in addition to producing dihydrochalcones still promoted the hydroxylation thereof. Thus, the marine environment fungi P. raistrickii CBMAI 931 and A. sydowii CBMAI 935 were efficient in biotransformation of flavonoid derivatives with chemo- and regioselective control. Marine-derived fungi have been shown to be a source of ene reductase enzymes, alcohol dehydrogenases and monoxigenases by efficiently mediating the biotransformation of flavonoid derivatives.

O trabalho abrange o estudo de biorreduções de cetonas por espécies vegetais, empregando-se homogenatos de células de tecidos de plantas já desenvolvidas (folhas) ou culturas de células de Rauwolfia sellowii e Cereus peruvianus em suspensão. Dentre os objetivos principais do trabalho estão: reduzir cetonas-modelo por culturas de células vegetais, avaliando a eficiência e estereosseletividade do processo. Desenvolver um procedimento de triagem por enzimas vegetais solúveis entre diversas espécies obtidas no campus \"Armando Salles de Oliveira\", através da manipulação de variáveis que sabidamente alteram a atividade enzimática. Este tipo de preparação enzimática é utilizado no estudo de rotas biossintéticas, mas o emprego de homogenatos de células vegetais na triagem por novos biocatalisadores é inovador, tendo sido demonstrado seu potencial como ferramenta na seleção de enzimas vegetais para a biotransformação de xenobióticos. A metodologia é simples e confiável, possibilitando o estudo de biotransformações por enzimas diferentes daquelas expressas em culturas de células e oferecendo maior garantia de que a atividade enzimática observada é originária da espécie vegetal em estudo, e não de microorganismos endofíticos, que podem atuar nas biotransformações em que se utilizam partes de plantas desenvolvidas como biocatalisador / The work focuses on the study of the bioreduction of ketones by plant species, using homogenates of already developed plant tissues cells (leaves) or of Rauwolfia sellowii and Cereus peruvianus cell cultures suspensions. Among the main objectives of the study are the evaluation of the efficiency and stereoselectivity of the ketone-reduction process in plant cell cultures. It was employed a screening procedure for soluble enzymes from different plant species found on campus \"Armando Salles de Oliveira\", through the manipulation of variables known to be related to the enzyme activity. This type of enzyme preparation has been already reported in studies of biosynthetic routes, but the use of homogenates of plant cells to the screening for new biocatalysts is innovative. In this work we could demonstrate the potential of this approach as a tool in the selection of plant enzymes for the biotransformation of xenobiotics. The methodology is simple and reliable, allows the study of biotransformations by enzymes different from those expressed in cultured cells, and provides greater assurance that the enzymatic activity observed originated in plant species under study, rather than in endophytic microorganisms, which can act in biotransformations that employ parts of developed plants as biocatalyst.

A venlafaxina é um fármaco quiral utilizado no tratamento da depressão e da ansiedade associada à depressão. A ação farmacológica desse fármaco está associada principalmente ao enantiômero (+)-(S)-venlafaxina, que inibe a recaptação da serotonina enantiosseletivamente. Quando metabolizada pelas enzimas da citocromo P450 dois metabólitos são produzidos, também quirais, a O-desmetilvenlafaxina (ODV) e a N-desmetilvenlafaxina (NDV). O estudos mostram que o metabólito ODV é farmacologicamente ativo, apresentando ação farmacológica semelhante a venlafaxina. Fungos são micro-organismos capazes de mimetizar o metabolismo de mamíferos, produzindo, muitas vezes, os mesmos metabólitos. Além disso, esse processo pode ser enantiosseletivo. Dessa forma, o objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar a capacidade de fungos em biotransformar a venlafaxina em seus metabólitos ODV e NDV de uma maneira enantiosseletiva. A separação quiral dos analitos foi realizada por cromatografia liquida de alta eficiência (CLAE) e eletroforese capilar (CE). Como técnica de preparação de amostra foi empregada a microextração liquido-liquido dispersiva (DLLME). Essa técnica recente de preparação de amostra possui alta eficiência na extração, permitindo a obtenção de altos valores de recuperação e um consumo mínimo de solvente orgânico. Anterior aos estudos de biotransformação, o método foi validado para análise por CLAE e CE, empregando, em ambos os casos, a DLLME como técnica de preparação de amostras. A validação foi realizada de acordo com as recomendações da ANVISA para análise de fármacos em material biológico. Todos os parâmetros avaliados (linearidade, precisão, exatidão, estabilidade, seletividade e limite de quantificação) apresentaram valores dentro das exigências da ANVISA. Os estudos de biotransformação foram realizados empregando os seguintes fungos: Mucor rouxii, Cunninghamella echinulata ATCC 8688A, Cunninghamella elegans 10028B, Beuveria bassiana ATCC 7159, Phomopsis sp (TD2), Chaetomiun globosun (VR10) e Glomerela cingulata (VA1). Entre esses, o fungo Cunninghamella elegans mostrou-se promissor na biotransformação da venlafaxina. Dessa forma, diversos fatores foram avaliados na tentativa de melhorar a biotransformação, sendo esses: troca de fonte de carbono do meio de cultura, alteração de meios de biotransformação e adição de cofatores ao meio de cultura. Os resultados mostraram fortes indícios de biotransformação enantiosseletiva da venlafaxina em seu metabólito (+)-(S)-N-desmetilvenlafaxina. / Venlafaxine is a chiral drug used in the treatment of depression and anxiety associated with depression. The pharmacological activity of this drug is mainly associated to the enantiomer (+)-(S)-venlafaxine, which inhibits the reuptake of serotonin with enantioselectivity. When metabolized by the cytochrome P450 enzymes, two metabolites, also chiral, are produced, O-desmethylvenlafaxine (ODV) and N-desmethylvenlafaxine (NDV). The studies have demonstrated that the ODV metabolite is pharmacologically active, with similar pharmacological activity of venlafaxine. Fungal are microorganisms capable of mimicking the mammalian metabolism, often producing the same metabolites. Moreover, this process can be enantioselective. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of fungi to biotransform, with enantioselectivity, the venlafaxine in its metabolites ODV and NDV. The chiral separation of the analytes was performed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and capillary electrophoresis (CE). As sample preparation was employed the dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME). This recent technique of sample preparation has high extraction efficiency, allowing obtaining high values of recovery and minimal consumption of organic solvent. Before the biotransformation studies, the method was validated employing CE and HPLC with the DLLME technique as sample preparation. The validation was performed according to ANVISA recommendations. All parameters (linearity, precision, accuracy, stability, selectivity and limit of quantification) were acceptable as required by ANVISA. The biotransformation studies were conducted using the following fungal: Mucor rouxii, Cunninghamella echinulata ATCC 8688A, Cunninghamella elegans 10028B, Beuveria bassiana ATCC 7159, Phomopsis sp (TD2), Chaetomiun globosun (VR10) and Glomerela cingulata (VA1). Among these, the fungus Cunninghamella elegans was promising in the biotransformation of venlafaxine. Thus, several factors were evaluated in an attempt to improve the biotransformation: carbon source exchange in the liquid culture medium, changes of the biotransformation medium and addition of cofators in the culture medium. The results provides strong evidences of enantioselective biotransformation of venlafaxine in its metabolite (+)-(S)-N-desmethylvenlafaxine.

Modelos microbiológicos tem sido usado na biotransformação de fármacos para a obtenção de metabólitos. Fungos de diversos gêneros têm sido amplamente utilizados para mimetizar o metabolismo hepático de mamíferos. O uso de fungos é vantajoso uma vez que apresentam um crescimento rápido e de fácil formação do sistema multienzimático. Além disso, hoje, a biotransformação é considerada como uma tecnologia econômica e competitiva, na busca de novas rotas de produção farmacêutica e de compostos agrotóxicos. Em muitos casos a transformação biológica é enantiosseletiva, permitindo a produção de enantiômeros puros a partir de misturas racêmicas. Devido à ausência de um método de extração com baixo consumo de solventes orgânicos para a determinação enantiosseletiva da hidroxizina (HZ) e cetirizina (CTZ), foi desenvolvido um método que combina a microextração liquido-liquido dispersiva (DLLME) e eletroforese capilar (CE) para estudar a biotransformação enantiosseletiva da HZ pelos fungos Penicillium crustosum, Mucor rouxii, Cunnonghamella echinulata var. elegans ATCC 8688, Cunnonghamella echinulata var. elegans ATCC 10028, Nigrospora sphaerica e Fusarium oxysporum. Um método por CE foi desenvolvido para a análise enanatiosseletiva da hidroxizina e cetirizina em meio de cultura Czapek. As análises por CE foram realizadas utilizando um capilar de sílica fundida não revestida, 50 mmol L-1 de borato de sódio como solução tampão de análise (pH 9,0) contendo 0,8% p/v de ciclodextrina--sulfatada como seletor quiral. A tensão aplicada e temperatura foram de +6 kV e 15 ºC, respectivamente. O detector UV foi ajustado no comprimento de onda 214 nm. As condições da DLLME envolvidas foram: clorofórmio (300 µL) como solvente extrator, etanol (400 µL) como solvente dispersante. Após a formação da solução turva, as amostras foram submetidas a agitação por vórtex durante 30 segundos a 2000 rpm e centrifugação durante 5 minutos a 3000 rpm. As recuperações foram na faixa de 87,4 91,7%. O método se mostrou linear na faixa de concentração 250 12500 ng mL-1 para cada enantiômero da HZ (r > 0.998) e de 125 6250 ng mL-1 para cada enantiômero da CTZ (r > 0.998). Os limites de quantificação foram 125 e 250 ng mL-1 para CTZ e HZ, respectivamente. Dentre os seis fungos estudados, três foram capazes de converter a HZ em CTZ enantiosseletivamente, especialmente o fungo Cunninghamella elegans ATCC 10028 que converteu 19% de (E1)-HZ em (S)-CTZ com excesso enantiomérico de 65%. / Microbial models have been used in biotransformation studies of many drugs aiming their metabolite production. Fungi of various genera have been extensively used to mimic the mammals hepatic metabolism. The use of fungi is advantageous because they present fast growth and easy formation of the multienzymatic system. Moreover, the biotransformation is, nowadays, considered an economically and competitive technology, in the search of new production routes for fine chemical, pharmaceutical and agrochemical compounds. In many cases, the biological transformation is enantioselective, allowing the production of pure enantiomers from racemic mixtures. In light of the above considerations and due to the absence of a low consuming organic solvent extraction method for the enantioselective determination of hydroxyzine (HZ) and cetirizine (CTZ), it was developed a method combining dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) and capillary electrophoresis (CE) to study the enantioselective biotransformation of HZ through the fungi Penicillium crustosum, Mucor rouxii, Cunnonghamella echinulata var. elegans ATCC 8688, Cunnonghamella echinulata var. elegans ATCC 10028, Nigrospora sphaerica e Fusarium oxysporum. A CE method was developed for the enantioselective analysis of hydroxyzine (HZ) and cetirizine (CTZ) in Czapek liquid culture medium. The CE analyses were performed using an uncoated fused-silica capillary and 50 mmol/L sodium borate buffer (pH 9.0) containing 0.8% (w/v) sulfated--cyclodextrin. The applied voltage and temperature used were +6 kV and 15 °C, respectively. The UV detector was set at 214 nm. The DLLME conditions involved: chloroform (300 µL) as extraction solvent and ethanol (400 µL) as dispersive solvent. After the formation of the cloudy solution, the samples were subjected to vortex agitation during 30 s at 2000 rpm and centrifugation for 5 min at 3000 rpm. The recoveries were in the range of 87.4 91.7%. The method was linear over the concentration range of 250 12500 ng/mL for each enantiomer of HZ (r > 0.998) and of 125 6250 ng/mL for each enantiomer of CTZ (r > 0.998). The quantification limits were 125 and 250 ng/mL for CTZ and HZ, respectively. Among the six studied fungi three were able to convert HZ to CTZ enantioselectively, especially the fungus Cunninghamella elegans ATCC 10028B that converted 19% of (E1)-HZ to (S)-CTZ with an enantiomeric excess of 65%.

O trabalho abrange o estudo de biorreduções de cetonas por espécies vegetais, empregando-se homogenatos de células de tecidos de plantas já desenvolvidas (folhas) ou culturas de células de Rauwolfia sellowii e Cereus peruvianus em suspensão. Dentre os objetivos principais do trabalho estão: reduzir cetonas-modelo por culturas de células vegetais, avaliando a eficiência e estereosseletividade do processo. Desenvolver um procedimento de triagem por enzimas vegetais solúveis entre diversas espécies obtidas no campus \"Armando Salles de Oliveira\", através da manipulação de variáveis que sabidamente alteram a atividade enzimática. Este tipo de preparação enzimática é utilizado no estudo de rotas biossintéticas, mas o emprego de homogenatos de células vegetais na triagem por novos biocatalisadores é inovador, tendo sido demonstrado seu potencial como ferramenta na seleção de enzimas vegetais para a biotransformação de xenobióticos. A metodologia é simples e confiável, possibilitando o estudo de biotransformações por enzimas diferentes daquelas expressas em culturas de células e oferecendo maior garantia de que a atividade enzimática observada é originária da espécie vegetal em estudo, e não de microorganismos endofíticos, que podem atuar nas biotransformações em que se utilizam partes de plantas desenvolvidas como biocatalisador / The work focuses on the study of the bioreduction of ketones by plant species, using homogenates of already developed plant tissues cells (leaves) or of Rauwolfia sellowii and Cereus peruvianus cell cultures suspensions. Among the main objectives of the study are the evaluation of the efficiency and stereoselectivity of the ketone-reduction process in plant cell cultures. It was employed a screening procedure for soluble enzymes from different plant species found on campus \"Armando Salles de Oliveira\", through the manipulation of variables known to be related to the enzyme activity. This type of enzyme preparation has been already reported in studies of biosynthetic routes, but the use of homogenates of plant cells to the screening for new biocatalysts is innovative. In this work we could demonstrate the potential of this approach as a tool in the selection of plant enzymes for the biotransformation of xenobiotics. The methodology is simple and reliable, allows the study of biotransformations by enzymes different from those expressed in cultured cells, and provides greater assurance that the enzymatic activity observed originated in plant species under study, rather than in endophytic microorganisms, which can act in biotransformations that employ parts of developed plants as biocatalyst.

Protein engineering strategies, such as directed evolution, generate large libraries of enzyme variants, typically in the range of 106-108 variants. However, the availability of rapid, robust high-throughput screening methods has often limited the impact of directed evolution in discovering enzymes with enhanced catalyst performance. Raman spectroscopy is an established analytical technique, providing molecular specific information, permitting analysis in aqueous solutions and as such is an attractive, alternative screening method for biological systems. Although an inherently weak physical phenomenon, enhanced Raman scattering techniques, such as surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and ultraviolet resonance Raman (UVRR) spectroscopy, can be used to overcome the associated sensitivity issues. Herein, we successfully monitored xanthine oxidase (XO) catalysed conversions of xanthine to uric acid, before extending to hypoxanthine, using two contrasting Raman scattering enhanced approaches. Firstly, a SERS-based assay was developed utilising silver nanoparticles to measure analytes directly and quantitatively on micromolar scale, in the absence of chromogenic substrates or lengthy chromatography. Secondly, a UVRR approach was developed enabling monitoring of the XO-mediated reaction in real-time and without the need to quench the system. Significantly, both methods demonstrated over &gt;30 fold reduction in acquisition times (when compared to conventional HPLC analysis), and offered excellent medium-term reproducibility and accuracy of results over significant time periods. Furthermore, investigations were made into developing this SERS-based assay into an enantiomeric screen using another vibrational spectroscopy approach, Raman optical activity (ROA), along with circular dichroism (CD). Successful chiral reduced nanoparticles were synthesised, with multiple characterisation techniques employed, affording enantiopure Au-cysteine and Ag-tyrosine colloids. However, it was not possible to generate consistent and reproducible SEROA responses, with these techniques ultimately being unsuccessful in analysing these chiral sensitive nanoprobes, and thus differentiating between the D- and L- forms. Finally, a novel SERS-based approach, in combination with the standard addition method (SAM), was developed for the routine analysis of uric acid (end product in XO catalysed reaction(s) and biomarker for various diseases), at clinically relevant levels in urine samples from patients. Results were highly comparable and in very good agreement with HPLC analyses, with an average < 9% difference in predictions between the two analytical approaches across all samples analysed, and a 60-fold reduction in acquisition time (when compared with HPLC). Together, the research presented in this thesis demonstrates the suitability of Raman enhanced techniques for quantitative analysis, measuring the analytes directly using a portable Raman instrument and, most importantly, offering significant reductions in acquisition times when compared to established analytical techniques.

Metabolism of xenobiotic drug molecules can result in the formation of metabolites which are more chemically reactive than the parent drug from which they are derived. These reactive species have the potential to covalently modify biological macromolecules if they are not detoxified. The formation of drug-protein adducts carries a potential risk of clinical toxicities and idiosyncratic adverse drug reactions which can, in severe cases, result in hospitalisation and even death. Current methods for the evaluation of the risk for a drug to cause adverse drug reactions due to drug-protein binding rely on risk factors such as quantitative covalent binding value, structure, dose etc. The objective of this project was to develop methods for the detection of reactive metabolites directly bound to proteins, which could be used in future evaluations of the mechanisms of binding of candidates in drug development. Three compounds known to produce reactive metabolites, acetaminophen, SB-648969 and amodiaquine, were used as tool substrates. In vitro incubations with human liver microsomes and individual cytochrome P450 enzymes (as Supersomes ) were used to produce reactive metabolite species and binding with the incubation proteins evaluated. Analysis of the intact proteins, peptides generated via trypsin digestion of the incubation protein, and amino acids generated via digestion with pronase were evaluated using a combination of LC/MS and LC-MS/MS. Reactive metabolite trapping experiments with glutathione were used to provide information about the likely structure of the bound species and the specificity of binding, and were useful in the development of sensitive targeted precursor ion scanning and multiple reaction monitoring methods. [14C] radiolabelled acetaminophen and SB-649868 were used to assess the quantitative levels of binding (&lt;5% modification of protein in both cases). Radiodetection using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) was used to evaluate the stoichiometry of binding and aid the identification of adducted peptides through retention time comparison. Chemical and electrochemical methods were utilised to produce stable solutions of N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI) and amodiaquine quinone imine (AQQI), reactive metabolites of acetaminophen and amodiaquine, respectively, which were bound to selected proteins and used as chromatographic and mass spectrometric standards. These methods were used to successfully identify an acetaminophen-modified peptide (T56) of cytochrome P450 CYP2E1. No modified proteins were observed for the SB-649868 incubations, however, examination of the AMS chromatograms for the incubations with acetaminophen and SB-649868 revealed a difference in the stoichiometry of binding, with one modified peptide observed with acetaminophen, and several for the incubations with SB-649868. The detection and identification of drug-protein adducts remains extremely challenging due to the low levels of any adducts observed, which can be exacerbated by binding on multiple sites of a protein; however this project has demonstrated that sensitive and selective LC/MS methods can be successfully developed to identify drug-protein adducts.

Novel biocatalysts for the enantioselective reduction of imines and reductive amination of a broad range of carbonyl compounds have been developed. Unlike other imine reductases (IREDs), the IRED from Amycolaptosis orientalis (AoIRED) features an aprotic "catalytic" residue Asn171 and as such became an interesting candidate for detailed mechanistic, specificity and stereoselectivity studies. AoIRED has been shown to be an efficient catalyst for the enantioselective reduction of imines and iminium ions to yield the corresponding chiral amines in high conversions and good to excellent enantioselectivity. The enzyme exhibits unusual stereoselective properties, displaying a selectivity switch for structurally similar substrates and in certain cases for the same substrate depending on the age of the enzyme. Mutagenesis studies have highlighted important residues that may play key roles in the substrate specificity and stereoselectivity of the enzyme. The reductive aminase from Aspergillus oryzae (AspRedAm) is a multifunctional catalyst that efficiently catalyses i) the reductive coupling of carbonyl compounds and amine nucleophiles, ii) the enantioselective reduction of prochiral cyclic and preformed imines or iii) the oxidative deamination of amines towards kinetic resolution of racemic amines. Detailed kinetic studies have led to the construction of a kinetic model/mechanism and based on structure guided investigation of conserved active site residues, a putative catalytic mechanism has been proposed. It has also been possible to engineer wild-type AspRedAm for improved stereoselectivity as well as to invert the enzyme's enantioselectivity towards a range of substrates. Using AspRedAm as a catalyst, efficient systems have been developed that allow the kinetic resolution of several racemic amines. This thesis has been organised into separate chapters each addressing a specific theme. Chapter 1 gives an overview of recent advances in the field of amine biocatalysis with emphasis on biocatalytic imine reduction and reductive amination; it also outlines the objectives of this project. Chapter 2 describes methods and materials used in these studies while Chapters 3-7 present and discuss results from different projects that constitute the work in this thesis. Initial discovery and characterisation studies of IREDs are described in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 describes detailed characterisation of AoIRED with particular emphasis on stereoselectivity and synthetic applicability while Chapter 5 presents and discusses results from the study of the reductive aminase (AspRedAm) from Aspergillus oryzae. Chapters 6 and 7 respectively describe the engineering of AoIRED and AspRedAm, and the application of AspRedAm in kinetic resolution of racemic amines. The results from these chapters have been summarised and discussed in Chapter 8 and recommendations for future directions in this field have been offered.

O hipoestrogenismo decorrente da menopausa acelera o envelhecimento da pele. Apesar de possuir efeitos positivos na pele, dois grandes estudos apontaram para os efeitos adversos da TH (terapêutica hormonal) estroprogestiva. Os fitoestrógenos são utilizados como terapia alternativa para mulheres com contraindicação à TH clássica. Dentre os fitoestrógenos, as isoflavonas daidzeína (D) e genisteína (G) são encontradas em pequenas quantidades na soja e possuem capacidade de promover efeitos benéficos na pele quando administradas por via oral e subcutânea. Entretanto, nenhum estudo investigou se estas isoflavonas podem aumentar o colágeno da pele quando administradas por via tópica, e se este efeito está relacionado com os receptores de estrógeno. Desta forma, o objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver formulações cosméticas contendo extrato de soja biotransformado pelo fungo Aspergillus awamori e analisar o potencial estrogênico deste extrato na produção de colágeno. Para contemplar nosso objetivo, foram produzidos quatro diferentes tipos de extrato de soja biotransformado, e após definir qual o extrato com maior concentração das isoflavonas (D e G), este extrato (ESBE) foi submetido a testes de citotoxicidade em células L929 (mouse fibroblast cell line - clone 929 da cepa L) e HDFa (Human Dermal Fibroblast, adult). Na segunda etapa foram desenvolvidas formulações cosméticas do tipo gel, creme e gel-creme incorporadas com ESBE, as quais foram utilizadas na realização de testes de estabilidade preliminar e em ensaio de permeação e retenção cutânea. Finalmente, foi realizado teste de eficácia para avaliar a produção de colágeno após tratamento com ESBE em cultura de fibroblastos humanos primários (HDFa). Os resultados demonstraram que a biotransformação é um processo eficaz para aumentar a concentração de D e G; o ESBE não demonstrou citotoxicidade em células L929 e HDFa; as formulações incorporadas com ESBE demonstraram possuir estabilidade preliminar; a formulação do tipo gel demonstrou ser a melhor opção para incorporação do ESBE visto que facilitou a retenção das isoflavonas na pele sem permitir a permeação de compostos para o líquido receptor; e finalmente, o ESBE é capaz de estimular a produção de colágeno em fibroblastos primários nas concentrações de 59 e 1,33?g/mL. Concluímos que o ESBE estimula a produção de colágeno, principalmente na concentração de 1,33?g/mL. Sugerimos que o mecanismo responsável for este efeito pode envolver a ligação da genisteína aos receptores de estrógeno, entretanto, outros mecanismos de ação das isoflavonas de soja como proteção contra stress oxidativo, indução da expressão de enzimas antioxidantes e a presença de proteínas inibidoras de proteases (BBI e STI) devem ser levadas em consideração. / Hypoestrogenism that occurs during menopause accelerates skin aging.Despite having positive effects on the skin, two large studies have pointed to the adverse effects of estroprogestative HT (hormonal therapeutic). Phytoestrogens are used as an alternative therapy for women with contraindications to classical HRT. The isoflavones daidzein and genistein are phytoestrogens found in small amounts in soybean grains and with ability to promote beneficial effects on the skin when administered orally and subcutaneously. However, no studies have investigated whether these isoflavones may increase skin collagen content when administered topically, and if this effect is associated with the estrogen receptors. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop cosmetic formulations containing soybean extract biotransformed by the fungus Aspergillus awamori and analyze the estrogenic potential of this extract on the production of collagen. To achieve our purpose, four different types of biotransformed soybean extract were produced, and after define which extract has the highest concentration of isoflavones (D and G), this extract (ESBE) was subjected to cytotoxicity tests in L929 (mouse fibroblast cell line - strain L) and HDFa cells (Human Dermal Fibroblasts , adult) . In the second stage cosmetic formulations type gel, cream and gel-cream incorporated with ESBE were developed. These formulations were used in preliminary stability tests and assays to analyze permeation and retention of compounds on the skin. Finally, efficacy test evaluated the production of collagen after treatment of primary human fibroblasts with ESBE. The results showed that the biotransformation is an effective method for increasing the concentration of D and G; ESBE did not show cytotoxicity in L929 and HDFa cells; the cosmetic formulations incorporated with ESBE shown to have preliminary stability; gel-type formulation proved to be the best option for incorporation of ESBE because it was able to facilitate the retention of the isoflavones in the skin without allowing the permeation of compounds into the liquid receiver; And finally, the ESBE was able to stimulate collagen production in primary fibroblasts at concentrations of 59 and 1,33 ?g / mL. We conclude that the ESBE can stimulate collagen production, mainly in the concentration of 1,33?g / mL. We suggest that the mechanism responsible for this effect may involve genistein binding to estrogen receptors, however, other mechanisms of action of soy isoflavones, as protection against oxidative stress, induction of expression of antioxidant enzymes and the presence of protease inhibitors proteins (BBI and STI) must be taken into account.

Introdução: O estudo da ação biológica de compostos bioativos e de nutrientes, a fim de que se possa explicar a relação entre o consumo de alimentos e a redução do risco de doenças, é uma das áreas que tem aplicação direta com a saúde pública. A erva mate (Ilex paraguariensis) é uma planta rica em compostos fenólicos (ácidos clorogênicos), extensivamente metabolizados após a ingestão. O conhecimento detalhado sobre os compostos formados pela metabolização dos mesmos, concentrações e tecidos-alvo é fundamental para o completo esclarecimento sobre os mecanismos de ação envolvidos. Objetivo: Avaliar a biotransformação dos ácidos fenólicos do chá mate in vivo em ratos Wistar. Métodos: Os animais foram eutanasiados 90 min (ensaio piloto) ou 30, 60, 120, 240 e 480 minutos (ensaio principal) após a administração de chá mate ou padrão de ácido 5-cafeoilquínico (5CQA) por gavagem. O grupo Controle recebeu solução salina. No ensaio piloto foram analisados plasma, fígado, rins, músculo, estômago e intestino delgado para identificação dos compostos fenólicos e com base nos resultados definida a dose de 2g de chá mate solúvel/kg de peso do animal para ser usada no ensaio principal, que corresponde a 240 mg de fenólicos totais/kg peso, dose administrada ao grupo Padrão na forma de 5-CQA. Quantificação dos compostos fenólicos foi realizada no plasma, fígado, estômago, intestino grosso e urina dos animais do ensaio principal. As análises foram realizadas por UPLC/DAD-MS, após desenvolvimento e validação das metodologias para extração e análise dos ácidos fenólicos nas amostras. O chá mate foi avaliado quanto ao perfil e teor de compostos fenólicos por UPLC/DADMS. Resultados: As metodologias desenvolvidas para extração e análise dos ácidos fenólicos nas amostras biológicas apresentaram bons níveis de recuperação e precisão. Os limites de detecção e quantificação foram determinados para cada fluido/tecido. No ensaio piloto, foram detectados ácidos clorogênicos intactos em todas as amostras, assim como uma série de metabólitos de fase I e II. No ensaio principal, os ácidos clorogênicos livres foram os principais ácidos fenólicos presentes no estômago e intestino grosso, enquanto no plasma, fígado e urina os compostos mais abundantes eram os metabólitos, em ambos os grupos, em especial o ácido caféico ligado ao ácido glicurônico/grupos sulfato e o ácido 3hidroxifenilpropiônico (livre) no grupo Erva Mate e os ácidos feruloilquínicos (FQAas) e ácido 3-hidrofenilpropiônico no grupo Padrão. Demonstrou-se que a absorção e metabolização dos ácidos clorogênicos começa no estômago, mas a maior parte é absorvida no intestino grosso, especialmente após metabolização por bactérias. Cerca de 4,0 por cento dos compostos ingeridos pelo grupo Erva Mate e 3,3 por cento pelo grupo Padrão (mol/mol) estavam presentes na urina na forma de ácidos clorogênicos e dos metabólitos avaliados, 8 hs após a gavagem. Conclusão: A absorção e metabolização dos ácidos clorogênicos começa no estômago. Houve diferenças no tipo e quantidade dos diferentes compostos formados a partir dos fenólicos do chá mate e do 5-CQA puro, demonstrando que o perfil de ácidos clorogênicos presentes no alimento influencia qualitativamente e quantitativamente os metabólitos formados. Maior ênfase deve ser dada aos metabólitos em estudos que avaliem as propriedades biológicas e mecanismos de ação dos compostos fenólicos da erva mate e outros alimentos fonte / Introduction: Evaluation of biological properties of bioactive compounds and nutrients, aiming to explain the relationship between food consumption and decreased risk of diseases, is a field of study directly related to public health. Yerba maté (Ilex paraguariensis) is a plant rich in phenolic compounds (chlorogenic acids) which are extensively metabolized after ingestion. Detailed knowledge about the metabolites, its concentrations and target tissues is fundamental to clarify the action mechanisms involved in disease prevention. Objective: Evaluating the biotransformation of Yerba maté phenolic acids in vivo in Wistar rats. Methods: Animals were euthanized 90 min (pilot study) or 30, 60, 120, 240 and 480 (main study) after administration of maté tea or 5-caffeoylquinic acid (standard) by gavage. Control group received saline solution. In the pilot study plasma, liver, kidneys, muscle, stomach and small intestine were analyzed for identification of phenolic compounds and the dose of 2 g maté tea/kg body weight was defined for the main study, which corresponds to 240 mg of total phenolic compounds/kg bw, dose administered to the Standard group as 5-CQA. Quantification was performed in plasma, liver, stomach, large intestine and urine in the main study. Analyses were performed using UPLC/DAD-MS, after development and validation of methodologies for extraction of phenolic acids from fluids and tissues. Maté tea phenolic compounds amount and profile were evaluated by UPLC/DAD-MS. Results: Developed methodologies showed good levels of recovery and precision. Limits of quantification (LQ) and detection (LD) were calculated for each biological matrix. In the pilot study, chlorogenic acids and their phase I and II metabolites were detected in all biological matrices. In the main study, the main compounds in gastric large and intestinal tissues were intact chologenic acids, whereas in plasma, liver and urine their metabolites were present in larger quantities, specially caffeic acid, bound to glucuronic acid and/or sulfate groups, and 3-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid in the free form on Yerba Mate group, and 3-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid and feruloylquinic acid on the group that received 5-CQA. It was demonstrated that chlorogenic acids absorption and metabolism begins in stomach, but most of the absorption takes place in the large intestine, especially after microbial metabolization. Approximately 4,0 per cent of compounds ingested by Yerba Mate group and 3,3 per cent by Standard group (mol/mol) were recovered in urine collected up to 8 hs after the gavage, in the form of chlorogenic acids and the evaluated metabolites. Conclusion: The absorption and metabolization of chlorogenic acids begins in the stomach. There were differences in the amount and type of compounds formed from maté tea or pure 5-CQA, showing that the profile of chlorogenic acids on food products may influences qualitatively and quantitatively the metabolites formed on the body. Greater emphasis should be given to metabolites in studies that assess biological properties and mechanisms of action of phenolic compounds from yerba mate and other food source