Les mycotoxines sont des métabolites secondaires des moisissures qui peuvent naturellement contaminer de nombreuses denrées alimentaires, notamment les céréales. Dans les travaux de thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés à deux mycotoxines majeures produites par des champignons du genre Fusarium, le Déoxynivalénol (DON) et la Fumonisine (FB). Les objectifs de la thèse ont été de déterminer les effets individuels et combinés d’une contamination en DON et FB chez le porc, une espèce cible et sensible aux mycotoxines. Les effets sur les fonctions immunitaires lors d’un challenge antigénique ainsi que sur les fonctions intestinales ont été évalués. Par ailleurs, dans le cadre d’un partenariat avec un industriel, nous avons évalué in vivo les effets de méthodes de détoxification par biotransformation et ciblant spécifiquement ces deux toxines. Chez le porc, l’ingestion d’aliments contaminés avec de faibles doses de mycotoxines (DON, 3 mg/kg ; FB, 6 mg/kg) a provoqué des lésions tissulaires (foie, reins et poumons) et a fortement altéré la mise en place d’une réponse immunitaire spécifique de l’antigène (expression des cytokines, prolifération des lymphocytes et anticorps spécifiques). Les animaux ont été significativement plus affectés après la consommation du régime co-contaminé, et l’interaction a pu être considérée comme additive. De plus, les paramètres intestinaux examinés ont révélé des changements dans la morphologie, dans le profil de sécrétion des cytokines et dans l’adhésion cellulaire. L’interaction des deux toxines a pu ici être caractérisée comme moins qu’additive. Les approches de détoxification biologique proposées par l’industriel étaient basées sur la transformation par voie enzymatique du DON et des FB, à partir d’un microorganisme entier et d’une enzyme respectivement. La stratégie d’élimination des FB a suscité un intérêt plus important étant donné que cette méthode est non commercialisée et en cours de développement. Ainsi, la toxicité du produit d’hydrolyse de la FB1 (mycotoxine principale de la famille des FB) obtenu initialement par traitement enzymatique, a été comparée in vivo à celle de la molécule mère la FB1. Les résultats ont montré que l’hydrolyse de la FB1 réduisait fortement la toxicité hépatique et intestinale chez les porcelets. L’expérimentation animale avec le DON et la FB, seuls ou en combinaison a ensuite été reproduite afin de déterminer l’efficacité d’hydrolyse de ce procédé chez le porc après incorporation de l’enzyme dans les aliments contaminés. Dans ces aliments, le microorganisme entier ciblant le DON avait également été inclus. La nette diminution du marqueur d’exposition des FB et la neutralisation partielle ou totale des effets ont suggéré que le procédé avait fortement réduit la biodisponibilité des FB dans le tractus gastro-intestinal. Cette observation a aussi été en partie confirmée pour l’approche de dégradation du DON. La biotransformation par voie enzymatique des mycotoxines représente ainsi une stratégie biotechnologique prometteuse dans la lutte contre ces contaminants. / Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that are natural contaminants of several commodities, in particular cereals. In the present work, we focused on two major mycotoxins produced by the Fusarium genus, Deoxynivalenol (DON) and Fumonisin (FB). The main objectives of the thesis were to determine the toxic effects of individual and combined DON and FB contamination in pig, a target species highly sensitive to mycotoxins. The effects on the immune functions following an antigenic challenge and also on the intestinal functions were evaluated. Besides, within the framework of an industrial partnership, we evaluated in vivo the effects of detoxifying methods by biotransformation and targeting specifically these two toxins. In pigs, ingestion of contaminated feeds with low doses of mycotoxins (DON, 3 mg/kg ; FB, 6 mg/kg) triggered tissular lesions (liver, kidneys and lungs) and strongly impaired the establishment of the antigenic immune response (cytokines expression, lymphocytes proliferation and specific antibodies). Animals consuming the cocontaminated diet were more affected and the interaction could be considered as additive. In addition, changes in morphology, in profile of cytokines secretion and in cell adhesion were observed at intestinal level. The interaction here could be characterized as less than additive. The biological detoxification approaches proposed by the industrial were based on the transformation by enzymatic way of DON and FB, from intact microorganism and enzyme respectively. We paid a particular attention to the strategy of FB removal as this method is not marketed and still in development. Therefore, the toxicity of the hydrolysis product of FB1 (major mycotoxin in the FB group) initially obtained by enzymatic way, was compared in vivo to the toxicity of the parent compound FB1. Results showed that the hydrolysis of FB1 strongly reduced the toxicity in piglets at intestinal and hepatic levels. The animal experiment with DON and FB, alone or in combination was then repeated in order to determine in pigs the hydrolysis efficiency of this process when enzyme was incorporated in contaminated feeds. In these feeds, the intact microorganism toward DON was also included. The marked decrease of the biomarker of exposure to FB and the partial or total counteraction of the effects suggested that the process had greatly reduced the FB bioavailability in the gastrointestinal tract. This observation was also in part confirmed for the method degrading DON. The biotransformation method of mycotoxins by enzymatic way represents therefore a promising biotechnological strategy in the control of these contaminants.

In der Entwicklung neuer Agrochemikalien ist es essentiell das weitere Schicksal im Bezug zum Abbau durch abiotische und biotische Einflüsse vorherzusagen. Pestizide gehören zu den Agrochemikalien und durch abiotischen und biotischen Stress werden Transformationsprodukte (TPs) gebildet. Daher ist es von Bedeutung, die TPs von Pestiziden und deren Entstehungsprozess zu untersuchen. Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit biotischen und abiotischen Umwandlungsprozessen von zwei Modell-Pestiziden, nämlich Chlorpyrifos (ein Insektizid) und Fluopyram (ein Fungizid) unter Verwendung von Modellsystemen. Lebermikrosomeninkubation und elektrochemische Durchflusszellen, die an Online-Massenspektrometrie gekoppelt waren, wurden als experimenteller Modellansatz zu untersuchen um die Biotransformationsprozesse (phase I und phase II) der Ziel-Pestizide. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit, wurden Photodegradationsprodukte der beiden Modellverbindungen durch Bestrahlung mit keimtötendem ultraviolettem Licht (200 - 280 nm) untersucht. Im letzten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde die Elektrochemie-Massenspektrometrie auf die Herstellung von Referenzstandards für Transformationsprodukte für das gezielte Screening in Lebensmittelproben ausgedehnt. Die strukturelle Aufklärung der Transformationsprodukte erfolgte mittels HPLC, gekoppelt an verschiedene Massenspektrometrietechniken (Single Quad, Triple Quad, FT-ICR HRMS, Triple TOF-MS, Orbitrap HRMS). Zusammenfassend konnte die Kopplung von EC/(LC)/MS als schnelle, zuverlässige, kostengünstige und matrix-unabhängige Methode genutzt werden, um den oxidativen Phase-I und II Metabolismus von Fluopyram und Chlorpyrifos zu simulieren. EC/MS könnte weiterhin zur Synthese von TP Referenzstandards und zur Messung von Realproben genutzt werden. Neue TPs und deren Bildungsmechanismen konnten im Rahmen dieser Dissertation für beide untersuchten Substanzen identifiziert werden. / One of the crucial steps of developing a new agrochemical product is predicting its fate following biotic or abiotic stress. In this regard, pesticides undergo transformation processes in response to biotic and abiotic stress. Therefore, it is important to investigate pesticides’ transformation products (TPs) and the formation processes they undergo. This dissertation deals on biotic and abiotic transformation processes of two model pesticides namely chlorpyrifos (an insecticide) and fluopyram (a fungicide) using model systems. Liver microsome incubation and electrochemical-flow-through cell coupled to online mass spectrometry were used as a model experimental approach to investigate phase I and phase II biotransformation processes of the targeted pesticides. In the second part of this thesis, photodegradation products of the two model compounds were investigated by irradiating with germicidal ultraviolet light (200 – 280 nm). In the last part of this work, electrochemistry-mass spectrometry was scaled-up to the production of transformation product reference standards for targeted screening in different food samples. Structural elucidations of transformation products were performed using HPLC coupled to different mass spectrometry techniques (single quad, triple quad, FT-ICR HRMS, TripleTOF-MS, Orbitrap HRMS). In summary, a fast, reliable, cost-effective and matrix-free simulation of oxidative metabolism (phase I and II) of fluopyram and chlorpyrifos was achieved here by EC/(LC)/MS. EC/MS could, therefore, be scaled up to synthesis TP reference standards for real sample investigation. Additionally, new TPs and their mechanisms were identified for both investigated compounds.

In anti-doping science, the knowledge of drug metabolism is a prerequisite to identify analytical targets for the detection of misused prohibited substances. As the most obvious way to study xenobiotic metabolism, the administration to human volunteers, faces ethical concerns, there is a need for model systems. In the present study, we investigated whether Oryzias latipes (medaka) embryos might be an alternative, non-animal test model to study human-like metabolism. In the present study, we exposed medaka embryos at the morula stage to the anabolic steroid metandienone (10 µM or 50 µM) for a period of 2 or 8 days. According to the fish embryo toxicity test (OECD test), we assessed the developmental status of the embryos. We further investigated metandienone metabolites by high-performance liquid chromatography- and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Medaka embryos produced three mono-hydroxylated and one reduced metabolite known from human biotransformation. Developmental malformations were observed for the exposition to 50 µM metandienone, while a significant elevation of the heart beat was also present in those individuals exposed to the lower dose for 8 days. The present study demonstrates that the medaka embryo represents a promising model to study human-like metabolism. Moreover, the judgement of developmental parameters of the fish embryos enables for the simultaneous assessment of toxicity.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are a group of 209 ‘man-made’ chlorinated organic compounds that were widely used in the 20th century for a variety of industrial uses. PCBs were first commercially produced in the 1929 and were manufactured until the 1980s when their use was phased out due to environmental and human health risks. However, due to their widespread use and persistence they are ubiquitous in the environment and remain a contaminant of concern. The structural properties that determine the persistence of PCBs in humans were therefore elucidated by statistical analysis of data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). PCBs with chlorine bonding in the 2,5-and 2,3,6- positions (and 2- in di- and tri-chlorinated congeners) were rapidly biotransformed and so can be classed as episodic congeners whereas PCBs with chlorine bonding in the 2,3,4-, 2,4,5-, 3,4,5-, and 2,3,4,5- positions were more resistant to biotransformation and can therefore be classed as steady state congeners. A fundamental requirement of using PCB signatures for environmental fingerprinting is an effective analytical method capable of producing high resolution signatures from biological samples. An extraction and clean-up method was developed that was successfully applied to different biological matrices (blood and tissues). A two dimensional gas chromatography with time of flight mass spectrometry (GCxGC-ToFMS) method was designed and optimised to provide a congener specific method capable of identifying 200 out of the 209 PCBs, with detection limits in human serum in the range of 1 to 10 ng g-1 lipid. The extraction and detection methods were used to determine the source of PCB contamination and age date exposure in workers at a transformer dismantling plant. A total of 84 different PCB congeners were identified in the sera of 30 workers with concentrations of the 7 indicator PCBs ranging from 1.2 - 39 μg g-1 lipid. Analysis of PCB signatures was able to distinguish recent from prolonged exposure and also identified an additional source of inhalation exposure in a subgroup of workers. Analysis of 12 different tissue types obtained from the common guillemot (Uria aalge) suggested a high degree of perpetuation between the PCB signature in different tissue types. This shows that comparative assessments can be undertaken between animals using different tissue types and that small (1 g) samples of blood can be used as a non-lethal sampling technique. The regional provenance of 25 wrecked Leach’s storm petrels (Oceanodroma leucorhoa) was also determined using PCB signatures. Results from GCxGC-ToFMS analysis revealed distinctively different PCB signatures in birds from Canada and Europe. The findings reported in this thesis enhance our understanding of PCB signatures in the environment and show how they can be used effectively to age date and identify the source of exposure in humans and animals.

La biodégradation du 2-aminobenzothiazole (ABT) a été comparée entre des bactéries en suspension dans l'eau et des bactéries immobilisées sur un support d'alginate. Trois processus de dégradation de l'ABT ont été étudiés : la photodégradation sous lumière solaire en présence du complexe Fe(III)-acide nitrilotriacétique (FeNTA), la biodégradation par la bactérie aérobie stricte Rhodococcus rhodochrous et la combinaison de ces deux processus. Le métabolisme de R. rhodochrous a été étudié par RMN in vivo du 31P et du 13C : des informations importantes sur le métabolisme phosphoré et carboné ont été obtenues. La réponse de la bactérie face à divers stress a été évaluée et a montré sa capacité d'adaptation aux variations environnementales. La spéciation du fer pour son rôle important dans l'activation de la biodégradation d'ABT a été etudiée : complexes organiques, oxydes et oxy(hydr)oxydes de fer ont été testés pour connaître les formes biodisponibles pour R. rhodochrous

La contamination des ensilages par les fusariotoxines intervient au champ, indépendamment de tout problème de conservation. L'ingestion par les animaux d'élevage de teneurs trop élevées de ces mycotoxines peut entraîner une altération des performances zootechniques et des effets sur la santé des animaux. Face au succès partiel des méthodes de prévention et à l'inadaptibilité des méthodes physiques et chimiques de détoxification, l'utilisation des propriétés de certains microorganismes apparaît comme une alternative à considérer. L'objectif de ce travail est d'explorer la capacité des bactéries fermentaires à éliminer les fusariotoxines en vue de leur utilisation comme agent de détoxification des ensilages. Le criblage de 202 souches de bactéries fermentaires pour leur capacité à biotransformer et / ou séquestrer le déoxynivalénol (DON), la zéaralénone (ZEN) et les fumonisines B1 et B2 (FB1 et FB2) a montré que la séquestration de ces ces fusariotoxines majeures est une activité répandue chez ces microorganismes, les genres Streptococcus et Enterococcus apparaissant comme les plus efficaces en éliminant jusqu'à 33%, 49%, 24% et 62% de DON, ZEN, FB1 et FB2, respectivement. Cette propriété pourrait diminuer la biodisponibilité des fusariotoxines chez l'animal et, par conséquent, réduire leur effet toxique. D'autre part, environ 5% (11/202) des souches testées ont biotransformé la ZEN en sa forme activée, l'alpha zéaralénol. Nous avons ensuite montré que la séquestration des fumonisines B1 et B2 fait intervenir le peptidoglycane de la paroi bactérienne et les bras d'acide tricarballylique (TCA) des fumonisines. La différence de séquestration de ces deux analogues (FB2>FB1) a été élucidé par une méthode de modélisation moléculaire qui a montré que le groupe hydroxyle additionnel de la FB1 forme une liaison hydrogène avec un des TCA, limitant ainsi la possibilité de séquestration. Des essais ont montré qu'une fraction importante de ZEN était aussi instantanément séquestrée par la flore du contenu ruminal, formant un complexe aussi stable dans des conditions simulant les compartiments post-ruminaux du tube digestif que celui formé entre des Streptococci et la ZEN. Ce niveau de séquestration pourrait contribuer à la plus forte résistance des ruminants aux effets des fusariotoxines. En conséquence, l'ajout de bactéries fermentaires pourrait être davantage utile à des animaux monogastriques plus sensibles comme le porc. Des essais in vivo sont cependant nécessaires pour en évaluer l'impact réel. Optimisée, la capacité des bactéries fermentaires à séquestrer les fusariotoxines pourrait compléter avantageusement les propriétés acidifiantes ou probiotiques des inoculants bactériens utilisés en nutrition animale

Candida tropicalis yeast and bacteria Comamonas testosteroni have been considered to be able to metabolize phenol and utilize it as the only source of carbon and energy. In our laboratory we investigated the cytoplasmic enzymes responsible for the first and second step of phenol degradation, NADPH-dependent phenol hydroxylase of both C. tropicalis and C. testosteroni and catechol 1,2-dioxygenase of C. tropicalis. The aim of our study was to isolate and partially characterize those enzymes. Phenol hydroxylase purification consisted of preparation of cytosol from C. tropicalis yeast by fraction centrifugation, chromatography and re-chromatography on a column of DEAE Sepharose, fractionation by precipitation of the enzyme with polyethylene glycol 6000 and gel permeation chromatography on a column of Sephacryl S-300. Extracellular phenol hydroxylase of C. testosteroni was purified by fraction precipitation with polyethylene glycol 6000 and by gel permeation chromatography on 4B Sepharose and Sephacryl S-300. Catechol 1,2-dioxygenase was purified using the procedure consisting of: chromatography and re- chromatography on a column of DEAE Sepharose, lyophilization of the enzyme and gel permeation chromatography on a column of Sephadex G-100. The enzyme activity was determined by two methods: use of HPLC...

O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a produção de xilitol a partir de hidrolisado hemicelulósico de palha de arroz empregando células de Candida guilliermondii permeabilizadas com Triton X-100. Para a obtenção do hidrolisado hemicelulósico foram realizadas etapas de pré-tratamento da palha de arroz sob condições previamente otimizadas pelo grupo de pesquisa, incluindo um tratamento alcalino seguido de tratamento com ácido diluído. Inicialmente, foi avaliado o efeito do meio de permeabilização celular (meio semi-definido ou hidrolisado hemicelulósico) sobre a biotransformação de xilose em xilitol empregando hidrolisado hemicelulósico. Numa segunda etapa, foi avaliado o efeito de tampão fosfato de potássio e MgCl2.6H2O sobre o processo de biotransformação empregando hidrolisado não detoxificado e detoxificado com carvão ativado através de um planejamento experimental 22. As condições de biotransformação foram mantidas a 35 °C, pH 6,8, com uma suspensão celular de 10-12 g/L. Neste estudo ficou demonstrado que a biotransformação do hidrolisado empregando células permeabilizadas em meio semi-definido, mostrou uma produtividade volumétrica em xilitol (QP = 1,86 g/L.h) de 34,8 % superior à obtida com células permeabilizadas no próprio hidrolisado (QP = 1,38 g/L.h), enquanto os fatores de conversão de xilose em xilitol foram semelhantes (~0,57 g/g) independente do meio de permeabilização. Foi observado que a adição de tampão fosfato de potássio e/ou MgCl2.6H2O ao hidrolisado hemicelulósico (não detoxificado e detoxificado) não promoveu qualquer efeito sobre a biotransformação de xilose em xilitol, obtendo-se em média uma produtividade volumétrica de 2,0 g/L.h e um fator de conversão de 0,57 g/g. O impacto da permeabilização celular com Triton X-100 sobre a biotransformação de xilose em xilitol empregando hidrolisado hemicelulósico não detoxificado e sem qualquer adição de sais foi de um aumento de 40 % na produtividade volumétrica e de 32 % no fator de conversão de xilose em xilitol. As células permeabilizadas com Triton X-100 também mostraram elevada estabilidade. Os valores de produtividade volumétrica e fator de conversão de xilose em xilitol foram mantidos em 4 ciclos de 15 horas cada em bateladas repetidas, os quais apresentaram em média 1,93 g/L.h e 0,59 g/g, respectivamente. Estes resultados mostram que a permeabilização celular é uma potencial estratégia para a biotransformação de xilose em xilitol a partir de hidrolisado hemicelulósico de palha de arroz, pois além de aumentar os parâmetros da biotransformação, não promoveu queda da viabilidade celular e permitiu o reuso das células. / The present study aimed to evaluate the production of xylitol from hemicellulosic rice straw hydrolyzate using Candida guilliermondii cells permeabilized with Triton X-100. To obtain the hemicellulosic hydrolyzate, pre-treatment steps were performed on rice straw under conditions previously optimized by the research group, including an alkaline treatment followed by diluted acid treatment. Initially, the effect of the cellular permeabilization medium (semi-defined medium or hemicellulosic hydrolyzate) on the biotransformation of xylose in xylitol using a hemicellulosic hydrolyzate was evaluated. In a second step, the effect of potassium phosphate buffer and MgCl2.6H2O on the biotransformation process was evaluated using non-detoxified hydrolyzate and detoxified with activated charcoal through an experimental design 22. The biotransformation conditions were maintained at 35 °C, pH 6,8, with a cell suspension of 10-12 g/L. In this study, it was demonstrated that in the biotransformation of xylitol in xylitol by cells permeabilized in semi-defined medium using hemicellulosic hydrolyzate, the volumetric productivity in xylitol (QP = 1,86 g/L.h) was 34,8% higher than that obtained with cells permeabilized in hydroxylate (QP = 1,38 g/L.h), while xylose conversion factors in xylitol were similar (~ 0,57 g/g) independent of the permeabilization medium. It was observed that the addition of potassium phosphate buffer and / or MgCl2.6H2O to the hemicellulosic (non-detoxified and detoxified) hydrolyzate did not have any effect on the biotransformation of xylitol into xylitol, obtaining, on average, a volumetric productivity of 2,0 g/L.h and a conversion factor of 0,57 g/g. The impact of cell permeabilization with Triton X-100 on xylose biotransformation in xylitol using non-detoxified hemicellulosic hydrolyzate and without any addition of salts was a 40% increase in volumetric productivity and 32% in xylose conversion factor in xylitol. Cells permeabilized with Triton X-100 also showed high stability. The values of volumetric productivity and conversion factor of xylose in xylitol were maintained in 4 cycles of 15 hours each in repeated batch, which presented, on average, 1,93 g/L.h and 0,59 g/g, respectively. These results show that cellular permeabilization is a potential strategy for the biotransformation of xylitol in xylitol from hemicellulosic rice straw hydrolyzate, since in addition to increasing the parameters of biotransformation, it did not promote a decrease in cell viability and allowed reuse of the cells.

O uso de fungos na biotransformação estereosseletiva de fármacos pode constituirse em uma excelente alternativa à síntese assimétrica para obtenção de metabólitos, bem como aos estudos de biotransformação in vivo e in vitro convencionais. Neste trabalho foram empregados fungos isolados de órgãos internos de plantas, classificados como endofíticos, fungos fitopatógenos, bem como, fungos adquiridos de coleções de micro-organismos. Esses fungos foram empregados no estudo da biotransformação estereosseletiva dos fármacos midodrina, bufuralol e donepezila. Estes fármacos foram selecionados por produzirem metabólitos ativos nos processos de biotransformação em humanos. Para o monitoramento da formação dos metabólitos dos fármacos foi necessário desenvolver e validar métodos analíticos com características adequadas para essa aplicação. Para determinação enantiosseletiva da midodrina e seu metabólito empregou-se a eletroforese capilar, enquanto que para a determinação aquiral empregou-se a cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência. Para avaliar a biotransformação estereosseletiva do bufuralol e donepezila foram desenvolvidos métodos empregando a cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência. Os dados referentes ao estudo de cada fármaco são apresentados em quatro capítulos. O primeiro capítulo apresenta os resultados obtidos no desenvolvimento de um método empregando a eletroforese capilar para a determinação enantiosseletiva de midodrina e seu metabólito desglimidodrina (DMAE) em meio de cultura Czapek. As análises foram realizadas em capilar de sílica de 50 ?m de diâmetro interno e com comprimento efetivo de 40 cm, utilizando 30 mmol L-1 de trimetil- -ciclodextrina dissolvida em solução de acetato de sódio 70 mmol L-1, pH 5, como tampão de análise. A técnica de preparação das amostras empregada foi a extração líquidolíquido. O método foi validado, mostrando linearidade na faixa de concentração de 100 - 12000 ng mL-1, com coeficientes de correlação linear 0.9975. Os resultados de precisão e exatidão foram inferiores a 15% e a robustez do método foi avaliada através de um planejamento fatorial fracionário. O método foi aplicado em um estudo de biotransformação usando fungos endofíticos. Foram avaliados oito fungos com destaque para o fungo Papulaspora immersa Hotson (SS13) que biotransformou 21,3% da (+)-midodrina em (+)-DMAE e 2,4% da (-)-midodrina em (-)-DMAE, em 72 h de biotransformação, apresentando um excesso enantiomérico de 79,7%. O segundo capítulo apresenta os resultados obtidos no desenvolvimento de um método cromatográfico para a determinação de midodrina e DMAE em meio de cultura Czapek-Dox. As análises foram realizadas no modo reverso de eluição empregando uma coluna Lichrospher 100 RP 18 e fase móvel composta por acetonitrila:ácido fórmico 40 mmol L-1 (60:40, v/v), vazão de 1,4 mL min-1 e detecção em 290 nm. O preparo de amostras empregado foi a extração líquido-líquido, usando acetato de etila como solvente extrator. O método foi validado na faixa de concentração de 0,4 a 40 ?g mL-1, com coeficientes de correlação linear superiores ii a 0,9997. Este método foi aplicado em um estudo de biotransformação da midodrina empregando o fungo endofítico Papulaspora immersa e duas linhagens do fitopatógeno Botrytis cinerea (UCA 992 e 2100). Entre os fungos estudados, o Botrytis cinerea 2100, em condição de agitação, apresentou o maior percentual de biotransformação da midodrina em DMAE (42,2% em 48 h). Além disso, nos cromatogramas referentes a biotransformação em condição estática, pelos fungos Papulaspora immersa e Botrytis cinerea 2100, foi observada a presença de picos adicionais não observados nos controles realizados. Estes fungos foram submetidos à biotransformação em escala ampliada, em condição estática, a partir das quais foram isolados DMAE de ambos os fungos e um derivado desaminado da midodrina (Botrytis cinerea 2100). No terceiro capítulo são apresentados os resultados obtidos com o desenvolvimento de um método para a determinação estereosseletiva do bufuralol e seus metabólitos 1'-oxobufuralol e 1'-hidroxibufuralol em meio Czapek, usando a coluna Chiralcel OD-H no modo normal de eluição. As demais condições cromatográficas empregadas foram: fase móvel constituída por hexano:isopropanol:metanol (97,5:2,0:0,5; v/v/v) acrescidos de 0,5% de dietilamina, vazão 1,5 mL min-1 e detecção no UV em 248 e 273 nm. A microextração em fase líquida com membrana cilíndrica oca em três fases foi usada como procedimento de preparação das amostras. As condições empregadas na extração foram: fase doadora em pH 13 ajustado com NaOH 2 mol L-1, n-octanol como solvente orgânico, fase aceptora constituída por ácido acético 0,2 mol L-1, tempo de extração de 30 min e velocidade de agitação de 1750 rpm. Os valores de recuperação do método ficaram na faixa de 50 - 69%. O método foi aplicado em um estudo piloto de biotransformação com cinco espécies de fungos endofíticos. Nenhum dos fungos estudados biotransformou o bufuralol em 1'-oxobufuralol e/ou 1'-hidroxibufuralol e, devido a isso, o método desenvolvido não foi validado. O quarto capítulo mostra os resultados obtidos com o desenvolvimento de um método empregando a cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência na determinação enantiosseletiva da donepezila, 5-O-desmetil donepezila e 6-O-desmetil donepezila em meio de cultura Czapek. As análises foram realizadas na coluna Chiralpak AD-H no modo normal de eluição. As demais condições cromatográficas empregadas foram: fase móvel constituída por hexano:etanol:metanol (75:20:5, v/v/v) acrescido de 0,3% de trietilamina, vazão 1,5 mL min-1 e detecção no UV em 270 nm. A técnica de preparação das amostras foi a extração líquido-líquido e o solvente extrator foi o acetato de etila. O método descrito foi validado, mostrando linearidade na faixa de concentração de 100 - 10000 ng mL-1 para os enantiômeros da donepezila (r 0,9985) e 100 - 5000 ng mL-1 para os enantiômeros da 5-O-desmetil donepezila e 6- O-desmetil donepezila (r 0,9951). Os valores de recuperação foram superiores a 90% para todos os analitos. O método foi aplicado em um estudo de biotransformação usando fungos. Foram avaliados cinco fungos endofíticos e os fungos Cunninghamella elegans ATCC 10028B e Beauveria bassiana ATCC 7159. Os fungos endofíticos não desmetilaram a donepezila nas condições estudadas, entretanto, esta reação foi catalisada pelo fungo B. bassiana que biotransformou predominantemente 8,3% da donepezila em (-)-(R)-5-O-desmetil donepezila (ee, 60,6%), enquanto que o fungo C. elegans apresentou biotransformação enantiosseletiva da donepezila em (-)-(R)-6-O-desmetil donepezila (ee, 100%) com um rendimento de 15,1%. Os dados aqui apresentados demonstram que biotransformações com fungos são uma importante alternativa para mimetizar a biotransformação em mamíferos e para a obtenção de metabólitos de fármacos, especialmente na forma de enantiômeros puros. / Drug biotransformations using fungi are considered an alternative approach to the asymmetric synthesis and conventional in vivo and in vitro metabolism studies. In this work, endophytic fungi isolated from health internal plant organs, phythophatogenic fungi and fungi purchased from ATCC were used to study the stereoselective biotransformation of midodrine, bufuralol and donepezil drugs. These drugs were selected because the biotrasformation process in humans results in active metabolites. To evaluate the metabolite formation during the biotransformation study, suitable analytical methods were required. The midodrine biotransformation was evaluated under chiral and achiral conditions. For the enantiosselective determination of midodrine, a capillary electrophoresis method was used, whereas the achiral determination of this drug and its metabolite was carried out by liquid chromatography. The determination of the other drugs was performed by chiral liquid chromatography.The results of each studied drug are presented in four chapters. In the first chapter, a capillary electrophoresis method was described for the stereoselective determination of midodrine and desglymidodrine (DMAE) in Czapek culture medium to be applied to a stereoselective biotransformation study employing endophytic fungi. The electrophoretic analyses were performed using an uncoated fused-silica capillary and 70 mmol L-1 sodium acetate buffer solution (pH 5.0) containing 30 mmol L-1 heptakis (2, 3, 6-tri-O-methyl)--CD as running electrolyte. The applied voltage and temperature used were 15 kV and 15°C, respectively. The UV detector was set at 200 nm. The sample preparation was carried out by liquid- liquid extraction using ethyl acetate as extractor solvent. The method was linear over the concentration range of 100 -12000 ng mL-1 for each enantiomer of midodrine and DMAE (r 0.9975). Within-day and between-day precision and accuracy evaluated by RSDs and relative errors, respectively, were lower than 15% for all analytes. The method proved to be robust by a fractional factorial design evaluation. The validated method was used to assess the midodrine biotransformation to DMAE by eight endophytic fungi. The fungus Papulaspora immersa (SS13) showed the best biotransformation results. It biotransformed 21.3% of (+)-midodrine to (+)-DMAE and 2.4% of (-)-midodrine to (-)-DMAE, after 72 hours. The observed enantiomeric excess was 79.7%. The second chapter describes the optimization and validation of a method for the determination of midodrine and DMAE in Czapek-Dox culture medium. The analyses were carried out under reverse elution mode using a Lichrospher 100 RP 18 column and acetonitrile: formic acid solution 40 mmol L-1 (60:40, v/v), as mobile phase, at a flow rate of 1.4 mL min-1 and UV detection at 290 nm. The sample preparation was carried out by liquid-liquid extraction using ethyl acetate as extractor solvent. The method was linear over the concentration range of 0.4 - 40 ?g mL-1 for each analyte (r 0.9997). This method was applied to evaluate the biotransformation of midodrine by the endophyte Papulaspora immersa and two Botrytis cinerea strains (UCA 992 and 2100). Among the studied fungi, Botrytis v cinerea 2100, at shaken condition, showed the higher percentual of DMAE formation (42.2%, at 48 hours). Moreover, the chromatograms obtained for the biotransformation under static condition, showed additional peaks not detected at performed controls, for both Papulaspora immersa and Botrytis cinerea 2100. Further biotransformation experiments were carried out at large scale on static condition. In addition to DMAE, a deaminated midodrine derivative was isolated from Botrytis cinerea 2100. In the third chapter, a three-phase hollow-fiber liquid-phase microextraction (HF-LPME) method was used for the sample preparation of bufuralol and its metabolites 1'-oxobufuralol and 1'- hydroxybufuralol in Czapek culture medium. The analysis was carried out by chiral liquid chromatography using a Chiralcel OD-H column with hexane: isopropanol:methanol (97.5:2.0:0.5, v/v/v) plus 0.5% diethylamine as the mobile phase, and UV detection at 248 and 273 nm. The HF-LPME optimized conditions involved the use of n-octanol as the organic solvent, 0.2 mol L-1 acetic acid as the acceptor phase, donor phase pH adjusted to 13, sample agitation at 1750 rpm and extraction for 30 min. By using this extraction procedure, the recovery rates were in the range of 50-69%. The method was used to assess the biotransformation of bufuralol using five endophytic fungi strains. None of the studied fungi biotransformed bufuralol to 1'-oxobufuralol and / or 1'- hidroxybufuralol and because of this, the method developed was not validated. In the fourth chapter a chiral liquid chromatography method was described for the stereoselective determination of donepezil, 5-O-desmethyl donepezil, and 6-Odesmethyl donepezil in Czapek culture medium to be applied to a stereoselective biotransformation study employing fungi. The analysis was carried out using a Chiralpak AD-H column with hexane:ethanol:methanol (75:20:5, v/v/v) plus 0.3% triethylamine as the mobile phase at a flow rate of 1.5 mL min-1 and UV detection at 270 nm. The sample preparation was carried out by liquid-liquid extraction using ethyl acetate as extractor solvent. The method was linear over the concentration range of 100 -10000 ng mL-1 for each enantiomer of donepezil (r 0.9985) and of 100 - 5000 ng mL-1 for each enantiomer of 5-O-desmethyl donepezil and 6-Odesmethyl donepezil (r 0.9951). Within-day and between-day precision and accuracy evaluated by RSDs and relative errors, respectively, were lower than 15% for all analytes. The recoveries were higher that 90% for all analytes. The validated method was used to assess the donepezil biotransformation by five endophytes and by Cunninghamella elegans ATCC 10028B e Beauveria bassiana ATCC 7159 fungi. The endophytic fungi do not demethylate donepezil at the studied conditions. On the other hand, Beauveria bassiana ATCC 7159 biotransformed 8.3% of donepezil to (-)- (R)-5-O-desmethyl donepezil (ee, 60.6%), while Cunninghamella elegans ATCC 10028B biotransformed 15.1% of donepezil to (-)-(R)-6-O-desmethyl donepezil (ee, 100%). The data presented here show that the biotransformations with fungi are an important alternative to mimetize biotransformations in mammals and to obtain drug metabolites, especially as pure enantiomers.

As aflatoxinas são compostos carcinogênicos produzidos por fungos do gênero Aspergillus, que contaminam alimentos antes e após o processamento, causando riscos à saúde humana e perdas econômicas na produção animal. A exposição à aflatoxina B1 (AFB1), principal metabólito com maior toxicidade produzido pelo fungo, ocorre predominantemente através da ingestão de alimentos contaminados, sobretudo milho, amendoim e derivados. Após absorção e biotransformação da AFB1 por enzimas hepáticas microssomais, a toxina biotransformada liga-se com macromoléculas originando adutos tais como AFB1-lisina. A AFB1-lisina indica a dose interna de AFB1 que foi efetivamente absorvida através de alimentos contaminados. Os objetivos deste estudo foram determinar a concentração dos níveis séricos de AFB1-lisina em frangos de corte e suínos, e verificar a correlação entre os parâmetros bioquímicos séricos (aspartato aminotransferase [AST] e gama glutamiltransferase [GGT], proteína total [PT], albumina [Alb] e globulina [Glob]) e a concentração de AFB1-lisina em soro dos referidos animais. Para isto, foram realizados dois experimentos independentes, sendo um com frangos de corte (N = 40) subdivididos em dois grupos iguais (ração controle e ração contendo 222,17 µg/kg AFB1) alimentados com as dietas experimentais durante 14 dias, e outro com suínos (N = 20) alimentados com ração normal utilizada rotineiramente em um Campus universitário, sem qualquer intervenção. As rações foram analisadas quanto à presença de aflatoxinas por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE), enquanto que a AFB1-lisina no soro foi determinada através de CLAE acoplada a espectrômetro de massas (EM/EM). A AFB1 no nível testado não causou sinais visíveis de intoxicação. Os níveis das enzimas séricas (AST e GGT), PT e Glob não apresentaram diferenças (p>0,05) entre os tratamentos, nem entre os dias, exceto no 42º dia, quando GGT foi menor (p<0,05) que nos dias 28 e 35. Os valores de Alb foram menores (p<0,05) no tratamento com AFB1 aos 42 dias. A AFB1-lisina foi detectada no soro de todos os frangos do tratamento com AFB1, em níveis de 56.52 a 77.83 ng/mg Alb nos dias 35 e 42 de idade, respectivamente. Esses valores indicam a dose interna de AFB1 nas aves, a qual se correlacionou negativamente (p<0,05) com os níveis de PT, Alb e Glob. No experimento com suínos, a dieta apresentou níveis não detectáveis ou muito baixos de AFB1; portanto, a AFB1-lisina não foi detectada nas amostras de soro dos suínos. Os dados indicam que a AFB1-lisina apresenta potencial como biomarcador específico e sensível para a avaliação da exposição de aflatoxinas na dieta, bem como para fins de diagnósticos. / Aflatoxins are carcinogenic compounds produced by fungi of the genus Aspergillus that contaminate food before and after processing, resulting in risks to human health and economic losses in animal production. Exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), the main metabolite with greater toxicity produced by the fungus, occurs predominantly through ingestion of contaminated food, especially mayze, groundnuts and derivatives. After absorption and biotransformation of AFB1 by hepatic microsomal enzymes, the biotransformed toxin binds to macromolecules thus originating adducts such as AFB1-lysine. The AFB1-lysine adduct indicates the internal AFB1 dose that was actually absorbed through contaminated food. The objectives of this study were to determine the serum AFB1-lysine levels in broiler chicks and pigs, and check the correlation between the serum biochemistry parameters (aspartate aminotransferase [AST] e gamma-glutamyl transferase [GGT], total proteína [TP], albumin [Alb] and globulin [Glob]) and the concentration of AFB1-lysine in the serum of those animals. To this end, two independent experiments were conducted, one with broiler chicks (N = 40) subdivided into two equal groups (control feed, and feed containing 222,17 µg/kg AFB1) fed the experimental diets during 14 days, and the other with pigs (N = 20) fed normal diets routinely prepared in an University Campus, without any intervention. Feeds were analyzed for afltaoxins by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), while serum AFB1-lysin was determined by HPLC coupled to mass spectrometry (MS/MS). AFB1 at the level tested did not cause any sign of intoxication. The levels of serum enzymes (AST and GGT), TP and Glob did not show any difference (p>0.05) between treatments, or at different days, except for GGT on the 42nd day, which as lower (p<0.05) than concentrations on days 28 and 35. AFB1-lysine levels were detected in serum of all broilers fed the AFB1-contaminated diet, at mean levels of 56.52 to 77.83 ng/mg Alb on days 35 and 42 of age, respectively. These values indicated the internal dose of AFB1 in the birds, which negatively correlated (p<0.05) with the TP, Alb and Glob levels. In the experiment with pigs, non detectable or very low levels of AFB1 were found in the diets; therefore no AFB1-lysin was detected in the pig serum samples. Data indicated that AFB1-lysine shows the potential to be a sensitive and specific biomarker for the evaluation of broiler exposure to dietary aflatoxin, as well as for use in diagnostic purposes.