Parmi les récepteurs Frizzled, Frizzled 4 est le seul à avoir un phénotype vasculaire fort. Parcriblage, nous avons identifié l’ubiquitine ligase PDZRN3 en tant que nouveau partenaire de la protéineadaptatrice Dvl3 qui agit en aval de Fzd4. En utilisant des modèles murins inductibles, nous montronsque la délétion de PDZRN3 induit une létalité embryonnaire suite à des défauts de vascularisation dusac amniotique ; et que PDZRN3 est requis pour une vascularisation normale de la rétine. De par sonactivité d’ubiquitine ligase, PDZRN3 induit la prise en charge du complexe Fzd4/ Dvl3 par les vésiculesd’endocytose ce qui permet la transduction du signal après fixation du ligand Wnt5a sur le récepteurFzd4. PDZRN3 régule également le maintien des jonctions des cellules endothéliales et l’intégrité de labarrière hémato-encéphalique. La délétion de PDZRN3 stabilise les microvaisseaux après ischémiecérébrale. PDZRN3 induit la disruption des jonctions serrées et la rupture de la barrièrehématoencéphalique en ubiquitinant la protéine d’échafaudage MUPP1. / Fzd4 is the only Frizzled receptor that is essential for angiogenesis. By using a yeast twohybrid screening, we have identified the ubiquitin ligase PDZRN3 as a potential partner of the adaptorprotein Dvl3 that acts downstream of Fzd4. By using inducible mouse models, we have shown that lossof PDZRN3 leads to early embryo lethality due to vascular defects in the yolk sac when deleted inutero, and is then required during post natal retinal vascularization. PDZRN3 would target the Fzd4/Dvl3 complex to endosome, leading to signal transduction upon binding of Wnt5a to Fzd4. PDZRN3also regulates integrity of the blood brain barrier by acting on tight junctions stability. Loss of PDZRN3stabilizes microvessels after cerebral ischemia. PDZRN3 would induce tight junction disruption andblood brain barrier leakage by ubiquitinylating the scaffolding protein MUPP1.

Les traumatismes graves sont une cause principale d’hospitalisations et peuvent induire des handicaps physiques et psychologiques. Dans ce travail, nous nous intéressons au choc hémorragique (CH), défini par une perte sanguine de plus de 30% menant à une ischémie systémique causant de la mort cellulaire et la libération de médiateurs circulants. Parmi ces médiateurs, notre groupe a déjà démontré l’augmentation en circulation de l’acide urique (AU) après le CH et son rôle dans l’atteinte d’organes ; un effet qui est prévenu par l’utilisation d’une uricase, qui métabolise l’AU circulant. Notre objectif actuel est de démontrer le rôle de l’AU dans l’altération du système nerveux central. Pour ce faire nous utilisons un modèle murin de CH reperfusé avec 3 groupes expérimentaux : SHAM (contrôle), CH et CH+U (uricase IP au moment de la reperfusion). Nos résultats démontrent que l’altération de la perméabilité de la barrière hématoencéphalique (augmentation significative de la perméabilité à la fluorescéine de sodium (NaF)) et de l’expression de ICAM-1 après le CH peut être prévenu par l’administration d’uricase. Les résultats sont les mêmes pour la mesure de la neuroinflammation (activité de la myéloperoxidase (neutrophiles) ainsi que astrocytes et microglie activés) et de l’apoptose/dégérescence neuronale (caspase-3, coloration TUNEL et fluorojade). En conséquence à l’atteinte neuroinflammatoire et apoptotiques, nous observons une augmentation significative des comportements anxieux après le CH, détectés par le test de nage forcée, le labyrinthe en croix surélevé et l’intéraction sociale, et qui sont prévenus par le traitement avec uricase. En conclusion, ce projet permet de confirmer que l’AU joue un rôle important dans l’atteinte cérébrale et l’altération des comportements, après le CH reperfusé. / Polytrauma is one of the main causes of hospitalisations and can lead to physical and psychological handicaps. This work focuses on hemorrhagic shock (HS), defined by a blood-loss of at least 30%, leading to systemic ischemia, cell death and the release of various mediators in circulation. The importance of one of these mediators, uric acid (UA), in multiple organ failure after HS and the improvement by the use of an uricase, which can destroy UA, was already demonstrated by our lab. Our objective is to illustrate the implication of UA in central nervous system alterations after HS. To reach this goal, we use a murine model which is assigned to one of our 3 experimental groups: SHAM (control), HS and HS+U (IP injection of uricase at reperfusion). Our results show an altered blood-brain barrier permeability (significant infiltration of NaF in the brain after HS), an increased expression of ICAM-1 after HS and a prevention of both these results by uricase treatment. The same results are observed for neuroinflammation (myeloperoxidase activity (neutrophils), astrocytes and microglia) and for neuronal apoptosis/degeneration (caspase-3, TUNEL staining and FluoroJade staining). Furthermore, anxiety is increased after HS compared to SHAM but prevented with uricase treatment. The tests used to reach this conclusion are the elevated plus maze, the forced swim test and social interaction. In conclusion, this project confirms the central role of UA in brain lesions and subsequent behavioral alterations after resuscitated HS.

<p>A multitude of neurologic diseases are increasing in patients that both diminish quality and quantity of life. My dissertation research focused on unraveling the blood-brain barrier’s alterations (BBB), primarily in lung cancer brain metastases, the most common brain metastasis in patients. We optimized a reliable and reproducible mouse model for creating brain metastases using patient derived brain seeking cells of non-small lung cancer (NSCLC) using ultrasound-guided intracardiac injection. I then evaluated brain tissue with qualitative and quantitative immunofluorescence for individual components of the BBB. Using this experimental method, I was able to identify the specific shift of each BBB component over time in NSCLC brain metastases. I then used human brain metastases specimens to demonstrate the clinical relevance of my findings. These results show distinct alterations in the BBB, which have the potential for targeting therapeutic delivery to extend patient survival. I was also able to characterize a novel epithelial-mesenchymal (EMT) phenotype in vertebral metastases of NSCLC in our model, with features similar to those seen in human patients. Most recently, I analyzed patterns of paracellular permeability associated with each BBB component of NSCLC brain metastases which may provide direct passageways for therapeutic delivery. Altogether, this research offered foundational evidence for the future development of targeted novel therapeutics, including nanoparticles. Outside of the brain metastases field, we used an experimental framework to successfully characterize the BBB alterations in a traumatic brain injury model (bTBI). These findings provided the first description of this unique pathology and the framework for developing therapeutics in other neurologic diseases. Although my research work has focused on animal models of disease, future directions based on my research work include the developing a novel 3D BBB-on-chip device to enable high throughput novel therapeutic delivery through the BBB. Long-term, identifying targetable alterations in the restrictive BBB using <i>in vitro</i> and <i>in vivo</i> models provides a potential conduit for effective prevention and treatment of a myriad of neurologic diseases to prolong patient survival and quality of life.</p>

<p>There has been a rapid shift in food environment of Western cultures that has increased consumption of diets high in fat and sugar, which have imparted negative effects on metabolic and neurocognitive health. There is also building evidence that the adverse effects of Western diet</p> <p>(WD) are different in males and females, such that males are impacted more at an earlier age and females are impacted later in life. The underlying biological mechanisms linking WD and neurocognitive health are often associated with energy dysregulation or neuroinflammation. WD</p> <p>disrupts glucose homeostasis and causes low grade inflammation in the body, and these can impact</p> <p>the brain by disrupting the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The BBB is the microvasculature found throughout the entire brain that tightly regulates what compounds get into the brain to ensure optimal neuronal function. WD disrupts the BBB, however, the effects of WD on BBB integrity</p> <p>in females and younger individuals remain largely unknown. Based on the metabolic and behavioral effects of WD, we hypothesized that the effects are age- and sex- specific. To test this, we gave male and female rats access to a WD for 8-10 weeks starting in juvenile period (post-natal</p> <p>day 21) or in adulthood (post-natal day 75), then measured body weight, behavior, glucose tolerance, the density of two different markers of BBB integrity. We also measured density of resident immune cells (microglia) to assess the relationship between inflammation and BBB integrity. First, we focused on the impact of hyperglycemia on the BBB since elevated glucose alters glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1). We found sex- and age- specific decreases in GLUT1 density in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus—two brain regions commonly associated with neurocognitive impairments associated with WD. Correlational comparisons between WD and chow (CH) animals also found that the typically relationship between glucose tolerance and</p> <p>GLUT1 in the PFC and hippocampus were overall disrupted in WD animals. Second, we measured the leakage of albumin, a blood protein, since WD depletes the tight junctions that would typically prevent albumin from entering the brain and triggering a neuroinflammatory response. We did not find an increase in albumin density in WD animals, however, we found a main effect of age which</p> <p>offers insight to differential susceptibilities to BBB leakage. Third, we focused on inflammation and found that WD did not impact microglia density in our experiments, nor did it correlate with GLUT1, albumin, or behavior. Collectively, our findings support the hypothesis that the impact of</p> <p>WD on the BBB is sex- and age- specific, suggest that WD does not increase leakage of compounds such as albumin, and highlights the nuanced relationships between WD, metabolic disruption, behavioral deficits, and neuroinflammation.  </p>

Small extracellular vesicles (small EVs) are endogenous membrane-enclosed nanocarriers released from essentially all cells. They have been shown to carry proteins, lipids, nucleic acids to transmit biological signals throughout the body, including to the brain. Some evidence has suggested that small EVs can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), moving from the peripheral circulation to the central nervous system (CNS). The BBB is a dynamic barrier that regulates molecular trafficking between the peripheral circulation and the CNS. As a result, small EVs have attracted attention for their potential as a novel delivery platform for nucleic acid-based therapeutics across the BBB. Silencing RNAs (siRNAs) are a potent drug class but using “naked” siRNA is not feasible due to their short half-life, vulnerability to degradation and low penetration in cells. Despite the excitement for the development of small EV-based therapeutics, their clinical development is hampered by the lack of reliable methods for packing therapeutics into them. Reshke et al. has shown that cells can be genetically engineered to produce customizable small EVs packaged with siRNA against any protein by integrating the siRNA sequence into the pre- miR-451 structure. Mounting evidence has established that in a misfolded state, α-synuclein becomes insoluble and phosphorylated to form intracellular inclusions in neurons (known as Lewy bodies) which leads to Parkinson’s disease (PD) pathogenesis. Given that increased α-synuclein expression causes familial and idiopathic PD, decreasing its synthesis by using siRNA is an attractive therapeutic strategy. Here, we genetically engineered cells to produce small EVs packaged with siRNA against α-synuclein integrated in the pre-miR451 backbone, tested their ability to cross an in vitro BBB, and deliver its cargo to silence endogenous α-synuclein in neuron- like cells. The therapeutic potential of α-synuclein siRNA delivery by these small EVs was demonstrated by the strong mRNA (60-70%) and protein knockdown (43%) of α-synuclein in neuron-like cells. We also demonstrated that approximately at 4% and 2%, respectively of small EVs-derived from human brain endothelial cells (hCMEC/D3) and human embryonic kidney (HEK293T) were transported cross the in vitro BBB model. Interestingly, we observed that small EVs-derived from HEK293T deliver their cargo to induced brain endothelial cells (iBECs) (~74% α-synuclein mRNA reduction) but their rate of transport across BBB was lower and did not reduce α-synuclein mRNA expression in neuron-like cells, seeded on the far side of the BBB. Small EVs- derived from hCMEC/D3 reduced α-synuclein mRNA (40%) in neuron-like cells across the BBB model. This finding suggests that small EVs derived from different cell sources can undergo different intracellular trafficking routes, providing various opportunities to influence the efficiency of delivery and fate of intracellular cargo. Using small EVs-derived from hCMEC/D3, two different routes of administration, a single bolus intravenous (IV) or intra-carotid (ICD) injection, showed small EVs largely accumulated in the liver, spleen, small intestines and kidneys; and only a small amount of small EVs were detected in the brain. These results indicate that human brain endothelial cells may serve as a promising cell source for CNS treatments based on small EVs.

This thesis project serves to fill experimental gaps needed to advance the goal of performing pre-clinical trials using an orthotopic rat glioblastoma model to evaluate the efficacy of high-frequency electroporation (H-FIRE) and QUAD-CTX tumor receptor-targeted cytotoxic conjugate therapies, individually and in combination, in selectively and thoroughly treating glioblastoma multiforme. In order to achieve this, an appropriate model must be developed and characterized. I have transduced F98 rat glioma cells to express red-shifted firefly luciferase, which will facilitate longitudinal tumor monitoring in vivo through bioluminescent imaging. I have characterized their response to H-FIRE relative to DI TNC1 rat astrocytes. I have demonstrated the presence of the molecular targets of QUAD in F98 cells. The in vitro characterization of this model has enabled preclinical studies of this promising glioblastoma therapy in an immunocompetent rat model, an important step before advancing ultimately to clinical human trials. / Master of Science / Treating glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), a form of cancer found in the brain, has not been very successful; patients rarely live two years following diagnosis, and there have been no major breakthrough advances in treatment to improve this outlook for decades. We have been working on two treatments which we hope to combine. The first is high-frequency electroporation (H-FIRE), which uses electrical pulses to kill GBM cells while leaving healthy cells alive and blood vessels intact. The second is QUAD-CTX, which combines a toxin with two types of protein that attach to other proteins that are more common on the surface of GBM cells than healthy cells. We have shown these to be effective at disproportionately killing human GBM cells growing in a lab setting. Before H-FIRE and QUAD-CTX may be tested on humans, we need to show them to be effective in an animal model, specifically rats. I have chosen rat glioma cells that will behave similarly to human GBM and a rat species that will not have an immune response to them. I have made these cells bioluminescent so that we may monitor the tumors as they grow and respond to our treatments. I have also shown that QUAD-CTX kills these rat glioma cells, as does H-FIRE. Because of this work, we are ready to begin testing these two treatments in rats.

<p>Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) are an attractive tool for the study of different neurodegenerative diseases due to their potential to form any cell type of the body. Due to their versatility and self-renewal capacity, they have different applications such as disease modeling, high throughput drug screening and transplantation. Different animal models have helped answer broader questions related to the physiological functioning of various pathways and the phenotypic effects of a particular neurodegenerative disease. However, due to the lack of success recapitulating some targets identified from animal models into successful clinical trials, there is a need for a direct translational disease model. Since their advent, hPSCs have helped understand various disease effectors and underlying mechanisms using genetic engineering techniques, omics studies and reductionist approaches for the recognition of candidate molecules or pathways required to answer questions related to neurodevelopment, neurodegeneration and neuroregeneration. Due to the simplified approach that iPSC models can provide, some <em>in vitro</em> approaches are being developed using microphysiological systems (MPS) that could answer complex physiological questions. MPS encompass all the different <em>in vitro</em> systems that could help better mimic certain physiological systems that tend to not be mimicked by <em>in vivo</em> models. In this dissertation, efforts have been directed to disease model as well as to understand the intrinsic as well as extrinsic cues using two different MPS. First, we have used hPSCs with Alzheimer’s disease (AD)-related mutations to differentiate into retinal organoids and identify AD related phenotypes for future studies to identify retinal AD biomarkers. Using 5 month old retinal organoids from AD cell lines as well as controls, we could identify retinal AD phenotypes such as an increase in Aβ42:Aβ40 ratio along with increase in pTau:Tau. Nanostring analyses also helped in identification of potential target genes that are modulated in retinal AD that were related to synaptic dysfunction.  Thus, using retinal organoids for the identification of retinal AD phenotypes could help delve deeper into the identification of future potential biomarkers in the retina of AD patients, with the potential to serve as a means for early identification and intervention for patients. The next MPS we used to serve to explore non-cell autonomous effects associated with glaucoma to explore the neurovascular unit. Previous studies have demonstrated the degeneration of RGCs in glaucoma due to a point mutation OPTN(E50K) that leads to the degeneration of RGCs both at morphological and functional levels. Thus, using the previous studies as a basis, we wanted to further unravel the impact of this mutation using the different cell types of the neurovascular unit such as endothelial cells, astrocytes and RGCs. Interestingly, we observed the barrier properties being impacted by the mutation present in both RGCs and astrocytes demonstrated through TEER, permeability and transcellular transport changes. We also identified a potential factor TGFβ2 that was observed to be overproduced by the OPTN E50K astrocytes to demonstrate similar effects with the exogenous addition of TGFβ2 on the barrier. Furthermore, the inhibition of TGFβ2 helped rescue some of the barrier dysfunction phenotypes. Thus, TGFβ2 inhibition can be used as a potential candidate that can be used to further study its impact in <em>in vivo</em> models and how that can be used in translational applications. Thus, MPS systems have a lot of applications that can help answer different physiologically relevant questions that are hard to approach using <em>in vivo</em> models and the further development of these systems to accentuate the aspects of neural development and how it goes awry in different neurodegenerative diseases.  </p>

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