The increasingly high rates of body dissatisfaction among adolescent girls are alarming. Research suggests that cultural norms emphasizing thinness and unrealistic standards of beauty may be contributing to this growing problem. This is concerning given the link between negative body image and a host of unhealthy behaviors in girls. Although historically African American adolescent girls have exhibited higher levels of body satisfaction than their counterparts, there is growing evidence to suggest that this may be changing because of the body-related messages they receive from their parents, peers and the media. The present study examines these messages from both maternal caregivers’ and girls’ perspectives. Additionally, the importance African American girls place on non-weight related aspects of their body (i.e., hair and skin color) and how these factors influence their body image perceptions are also examined. Limitations, strengths, prevention implications, and directions for future research are also discussed.

D.Litt. et Phil. / This study explored the impact of psoriasis on the self-concept (a multifaceted, hierarchical construct of self with both cognitive and emotional components) (Hattie & Marsh, 1996), of men and women who live with this cutaneous disease. Psoriasis is a common (frequently occurring), chronic inflammatory dermatological disease that can severely affect the sufferer's quality of life. While the underlying cause is unknown, the immediate cause of psoriasis is the rate of growth and differentiation of the outer layer of the skin. In a process known as hyper-proliferation (renewal of skin every four days as opposed to every 28 days), psoriasis is anatomically disfiguring. Symptoms include: the thickening of psoriatic plaques, the sloughing of silvery scales, severe itching of the affected areas and a thickening and yellowing of the fingernails. The severity of psoriasis varies from small scattered patches to total skin coverage (Young, 2005). Chronic skin diseases, such as psoriasis, can affect one's self-concept at the level of the physical, emotional, social and spiritual dimensions of self (Kew, Nevin & Cruickshank, 2002). According to Gupta and Gupta (1995), sufferers of psoriasis experience external shame (fear of negative evaluations and stigmatisation) as well as internal body shame (negative self-evaluations and self-focussed feelings). According to Stake, Huff and Zand (1995), a disturbance in one dimension of self (e.g. the physical self-concept), invariably effects other self-dimensions (e.g. the private, social self-dimensions). A study by Gupta and Gupta (1995) revealed that psoriasis was a major contributing factor to the onset of psychopathology such as depression, anxiety, unfocussed anger and obsessional behaviours. A study by Choi and Koo (as cited in Young, 2005), found that the impact of psoriasis on the psychological and emotional dimensions of self-concept to be comparable to that experienced by sufferers of more chronic diseases such as cancer, heart disease and clinical depression. General healthcare providers who treat the medical components of psoriasis may be surprised to learn that the emotional and social burdens of psoriasis are often greater than the physical toll of psoriasis on patients. Further, psoriasis is observed to be persistent, unpredictable and stressful over longer periods of time than more serious illnesses (Young, 2005). Although many people with disfiguring skin disorders cope remarkably well psychologically and socially, many do not and may require professional help in describing their bodily being in relation to the world and to come to terms with the positive and negative aspects of self (Van Deurzen-Smith, 1997). Significantly, studies in psychoneuroendocrineimmunology have shown the interconnectedness of emotions and mental attitude to physical health and which underscores the importance of treating the whole person and not just the symptoms (Linsteadt, 2002). Consistently, studies have shown the importance of self-concept to psychological health (Francis, 2002; Hattie & Marsh, 1996; Newell, 2000; Young, 2005) and body satisfaction as being pivotal in one's overall concept of self (Tiggemann & Williamson, 2000). Problematic however is that the literature indicates a dearth of dermatological studies detailing the meaning-making experiences of individuals who have undergone changes to their physical appearance as a result of this and the impact of cutaneous disease on the self-concept (Hill, 2004; Papadopoulos, Bor & Legg, 1999; Thompson & Kent, 2001). Our experiences and how we make sense of what we experience is primarily dependent upon the kinds of bodies we have and also on the ways we interact with the various environments we inhabit. It is through our embodied interactions that we inhabit a world, and it is through our bodies that we are able to understand and act within this world with varying degrees of success (Johnson, 1999). The importance of skin for an individual's psychosocial equilibrium can easily be appreciated. First, the skin represents the outward packaging of our being. Second, the cutaneous surface is what society initially perceives and with dermatological disease being the basis for social stigma. Arguably, having a healthy, unblemished skin can enhance one's self-esteem, self-identity and not infrequently, one's social standing (Koo & Yeung, 2002). Studies investigating the impact of disfiguring cutaneous disease on the self-concept appear to be lacking in the literature. In 2004, at a meeting of the Editorial Board for the Journal of Dermatology Nursing, the need for studies presenting the patient's experience of cutaneous disease was discussed. It was thought that qualitative exploration of the patient's experience of cutaneous disease would provide medical and mental healthcare professionals with valuable insights and important information to help improve dermatology patient care (Hill, 2004). Dermatology and self-concept phenomena tend to be investigated interdependently of each other. Furthermore, the majority of research in this area focuses on quantitative research design. Consequently, much of the depth of information regarding the experiential world of sufferers of cutaneous disease is invariably lost (Hill, 2004; Thompson & Kent, 2001). In light of that stated above, this study explored the meaning-making experience of men and women who suffer from psoriasis and the impact of this on the various dimensions of the self-concept. Due to the sparsity of South African studies investigating qualitatively, the experiences of persons suffering from a common, chronic dermatological condition, this study followed an existential phenomenological approach in describing the impact of psoriasis on the self-concept as told from the perspective of the men and women who live with this. Existential phenomenology seeks to explicate the essence, structure and form of both human experiences and behaviour as revealed through essentially descriptive techniques that includes disciplined reflection (Sokolowski, 2000). Given the apparent lack of awareness and knowledge of psychological processes, meaning-making and coping strategies utilised by psoriasis sufferers in their experience of this, this methodology was thought most appropriate (Hill, 2004; Newell, 2000; Papadopoulos, et al., 1999; Thompson & Kent, 2001). In terms of the areas of participation, three male and four female sufferers of psoriasis participated in the study. For all participants, psoriasis was in the active phase and covered most parts of their body. Data was collected using a questionnaire set consisting of semi-structured questions and the research question, which was open-ended. The method of data analysis was based on an integration of the works by various phenomenologists and involved six phases, namely: bracketing, intuitive grasp, eidetic reduction, textural and structural descriptions, composite textural and structural descriptions, and the final synthesis. The participants confirmed that the statements generated were accurately reflected. The results evidenced several prominent themes shared by the group, namely: (a) that the severity of the physical manifestations and the painful symptoms of psoriasis can result in negative self-concept evaluations; (b) a lack of empathy and a failure to provide knowledge on psoriasis and a priori caution of the side-effects of psoriatic medications by the medical doctors consulted was experienced by the participants as disempowering and adversely affected their emotional well-being; (c) the doctor/patient relationship was observed as pivotal in influencing the participants general concept of self; (d) the participants acceded that medical aids need to place psoriasis on the list of chronic medical conditions; (e) social stigma adversely affects self-concept evaluations; (f) public education on psoriasis is required; (g) drawing on various methods of coping was deemed crucial to the enhancement of the self-concept in the participants journey towards psychological health; (h) positive meaning-making from the psoriatic/self-concept experience enhanced quality of life issues; and finally, (i) trait self-esteem and healthy self-concept development may be important determinant factors in the psychological recovery of patients suffering from psoriasis. More specifically, in terms of self-evaluation, the participants experienced psoriasis as an assault on the physical self that was painful, embarrassing and humiliating. In redefining psoriasis in this way, the participants redefined their body image (mental construct of the body), and with the pervasiveness of negative self-evaluations an offshoot of continuous negative cognitive and emotional schemas of the body. Regarding the doctor/patient relationship, the results of the study show a need for medical doctors to expand their focus of treating the symptoms of psoriasis to incorporate a more holistic treatment approach that places emphasis on psychological, social and nutritional processes. The willingness of medical professionals to network with psychologists and other healthcare professionals and also being prepared to integrate the concept of holism into their treatment programmes was thought one method of attaining a holistic approach to the treatment and management of dermatology patients. Significantly, the doctor/patient relationship was also experienced as being an important factor in the patients drive to want to heal (healing is not here equated with cure but rather being able to approach living with psoriasis more positively). The participants in this study experienced doctors to be largely unsympathetic and not well versed in the physiology of psoriasis. Additionally, the degree of psychological trauma experienced by the participants in their suffering with psoriasis seemed to go unnoticed by the treating doctors. To this end, helplessness and feelings of disempowerment were heightened. In terms of treatment implications, the participants claimed that their treating doctors failed to inform them of the severity of the side-effects, the dangers of various treatments, and the possible inefficacy of many treatments utilised. The participants experience of this resulted in the following: a) diminished trust in the doctor/patient relationship and the medical profession generally; b) heightened body shame and repulsion of self (as opposed to feeling repulsed by the psoriasis alone); c) intense anger and with some participants describing emotional anarchy; and finally, d) in feeling left out of the treatment decision-making process, participants felt as though they had lost control over their own body. In terms of medical aid support, the participants pointed out that psoriasis is not on the government approved list of chronic conditions and as such, given their experiences, acceded that this is something that needed to be challenged. Regarding social stigma, the participants’ experience of this appeared to result in re-enforcing a sense of their feeling socially shunned and physically alienated from their familiar body. Furthermore, it would appear that social stigma might play a participatory role in increasing the severity of the psoriatic condition due to the stress evoked in the experience of feeling socially stigmatised and also the heightening of psychological difficulties experienced as participants moved from pride to shame. All participants felt public education and awareness of the onset, cause and course of psoriasis was required. Methods of coping utilised by the participants included: the seeking out of empathetic medical practitioners, psychotherapy, hypnotherapy, assertiveness skills training, implementing spirituality in their lives, and drawing upon the support of family and friends. Finally, in the midst of much adversity, the participants found an inner strength from which to reclaim their sense of self and which they attribute to having had a positive demeanour prior to suffering from psoriasis. In the deconstruction (fracturing) of self, the participants seemed to have felt compelled into a process of change that could be characterised as a reconstruction of self - an evolving of the old and new dimensions of self that would evolve further into a stronger and more resilient sense of self that characterises the participants today. The participants to this study embarked upon a journey of self-empowerment and which was a defining factor in their making meaning from their suffering. Not alluded to in the literature is that, for the participants, psoriasis became a tool that they utilised to reclaim their lives and to re-build the self anew. The results of this study reveal many important areas for future research with persons suffering from psoriasis and dermatological conditions generally, such as: i) the focussing on levels of trait self-esteem in effecting how positive change in one's self-concept may or may not occur; ii) the exploration of disfiguring skin conditions as an impetus for self-concept enhancement and creating meaning in one’s life; iii) exploring the efficacy of combining psychotherapy with medical treatments in the management of dermatology patients; iv) exploring the role of the doctor/patient relationship in the patient’s drive towards psychological health and treatment compliance; and finally, v) exploring the impact of dermatological disease on the family of the sufferer, especially given the significance of the familial system in the sufferers coping. Importantly, the results of this study suggest that having a healthy self-concept prior to the development of illness or disease is pivotal in accounting for why some people recover remarkably well psychologically and others do not. The findings of this study are valuable and will have important implications for all within the healing profession in helping to effect positive change in their future endeavours with persons who suffer from dermatological disease.

M.A. (Psychology) / Body dysmorphic disorder is a somatoform disorder characterised by a preoccupation with an imagined defect in appearance, causing clinically significant distress or impairment in functioning. An electronic search of articles and dissertations yielded no results on the prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder in South Africa. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder among 395 undergraduate students at an inner-city university. Proportionate stratified random cluster sampling was used to select the sample. The students completed a demographics survey and the Body Image Disturbance Questionnaire. Results indicated an overall prevalence of 5.1%, which is similar to prevalence rates reported in existing literature among student populations. No clinically significant differences were found on the ,demographic variables of gender, race or sexual orientation. However, students differed significantly in their experience of the severity of the disorder in terms of age, such that students over the age of 21 reported higher severity levels than did students under the age of 21.

Background: Ostomy surgery refers to surgical procedures that reroute the elimination process of the bowel and alters the usual form of elimination. There are different reasons why a person gets a ostomy, depending on the reason for the surgery. The number of persons living with ostomys in Sweden is unknown. However, the reaction to intestinal diversion surgery can be a devastating experience. Living with a ostomy for a longer period may affect the individual. Nurses are important members of the health care team and have a significant role in caring for patients with ostomy. Aim: The aim was to describe experiences living with a permanent ostomy. Method: A qualitative litterature-based design was used in the study. CINAHL and PubMed databases were used to search qualitative articles. Articles were analyzed and reviewed by the five-step method in Friberg. Results: The result is based on ten qualitative articles. After making the analysis three main themes and nine sub-themes were identified. The three main themes were: the altered body appearance, the changing of daily life and interference with anticipated return to normal. The sub- themes were: fear, anxiety, disgrace and irritated skin, body image, acceptance, independence, daily activities, diet, impact on relationships, supporting, loneliness and isolation. Conclusion: Having a ostomy is a major event and it affects personal self-concept and restricts their lives in various ways. Nurses need to provide education, support advice and referral for specialist help if required to promote health and reduce suffering.

Body image (BI) reflects how a person views his or her own body, and how one thinks, feels and acts toward it. This study examined the relationship of activity (sport vs. leisure) and gender to body image among adults aged 50 years and older. The sample included 182 Senior Olympians (79 men; 103 women) with a mean age of 65.5 years. Three scales measured the components of BI: the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS) measured affective BI, the Contour Rating Drawing Scale (CRDS) measured cognitive BI, and the Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire (BIAQ) measured behavioral BI. The Body Satisfaction Scale (BSS) measured satisfaction with appearance and functionality, and grip strength was used as a measure of body function. Women scored higher than men on the SPAS and the CRDS, indicating greater dissatisfaction with their affective and cognitive BI. Women also scored higher than men on the clothing and grooming behaviors of the BIAQ, while men scored higher on social avoidance. Sport participants scored higher than leisure participants on the grip strength test. Results suggest that gender differences in BI appear to persist into older adulthood. The results also suggest that the effects of sport on BI among older adults may depend in part on gender.

This dissertation is focused on exploring differences of perception of body image in consumer marketing in two relatively diverse cultural backgrounds - the United States and China - on a sample of respondents (university students), their fundamental differences in perceptions of ideal body image, differences in attitude to decorate, and modify body. Using content analysis of selected print media portrayed examines differences in female and male bodies in advertising in both countries examined, including analysis of product categories.

The aim of this thesis is to map the perception of female body in our society and demonstrate the impact of marketing on the ideal of woman beauty. The work is divided into three major parts. The first part, which is theoretical, provides a basis for subsequent research and familiarizes the reader with the issue of body image. The second part is devoted to content analysis of women's web magazines that offer an interesting area for marketing communication. The third part contents an analysis of questionnaire survey from Czech and Slovak respondents. The specific conclusions and recommendations to the marketing are drawn at the end of the Master's Thesis.

The negative health consequences of dieting for individuals are well established. Yet little is known about the interpersonal consequences of dieting for romantic couples. This study utilized self-report questionnaire data from undergraduate students (N = 221) and their romantic partners (N = 74) to examine whether dieting is associated with romantic relationship processes. I hypothesized that dieting engagement would indirectly predict worse relationship outcomes. Body dissatisfaction is a core dimension of self-esteem, and people with low self-esteem often project their self-doubts onto their partner. Because dieting is strongly associated with body dissatisfaction, I hypothesized that people who engaged in more extreme dieting may project their negative self-evaluations of their bodies onto their partners, resulting in negative evaluations of their romantic partner’s attractiveness. Moreover, I expected that negative partner evaluations would predict worse relationship outcomes for both partners. As hypothesized, participants who engaged in more dieting (e.g., restricting food intake, feeling guilty after eating, compensatory behaviors) experienced higher body dissatisfaction, which predicted more negative evaluations of their romantic partner’s physical attractiveness. In turn, finding their partner less attractive predicted more negative evaluations of their partner’s worth, increased conflict, and lower commitment to their relationship. Moreover, romantic partners who were rated as less attractive perceived participants’ negative evaluations of their attractiveness, and experienced lower self-esteem. However, participant dieting did not predict relationship outcomes for their romantic partners. Overall, results indicate that dieting is negatively associated with both individual and interpersonal well-being. Findings must be replicated in longitudinal research, but highlight the potential for the negative consequences of dieting to extend beyond the individual to influence close relationship processes. This research also contradicts dominant models of dieting and close relationships that frame dieting in a positive light. / Graduate / 2020-08-15

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Arts, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts, (Clinical Psychology) Johannesburg, 1995. / In recent years there has been great interest in studying the energy-restrictive eating disorders within sociocultural contexts. Patterns of change in the incidence and prevalence of these disorders appear to reflect social processes involving gender issues and shared cultural values around the female body, South African society is experiencing rapid sociocultural changes, and this raises questions about disordered eating and values our own society. This study investigated body figure preferences and attitudes and behaviours related to eating and body weight. The sample consisted of 125 White pupils and 61 Black pupils in three high schools in urban and periurban areas of Gauteng, South Africa. The schools represent different socioeconomic Environments. One is a private school and one is state school with partial provincial subsidy in an affluent suburb, and one is a community school which is subsidised mainly by donor funding and serves a periurban Community. Black and White pupils reported similar body ideals and levels of discrepancy between their reported actual body figures and their ideal figures, but Black pupils showed significantly greater tolerance of different body figures. both thin and fat. Despite this increased tolerance. However, their scores on the Eating Disorders Inventory were similar to those of the White pupils and exceeded White pupils on perfectionism and maturity fears measures, Amongst Black pupils in the three schools. EDI scores were similar but State school pupils showed more body dissatisfaction and Community school pupils showed more perfectionism; and maturity fear, This suggests that pupils in more disadvantaged school environments are weight-concerned and could still be at risk of disordered eating, the finding is contrary to expectations that private school pupils would show the most disordered eating and weight concern. EDI scores were closely related to body figure preferences, and especially to real-ideal discrepancy which was shown to be a simple but effective measure, A high-scoring subgroup was isolated and this was found to include 14 Black pupils and 22 White pupils, The findings have implications for preventive efforts and for further research, / GR2017

Thesis (M.A.)--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Humanities, 2012 / The primary aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between binge eating disorder and personality traits. Studying personality characteristics may eventually enable us to identify individuals at heightened risk for developing binge eating, and to use this information to design more effective prevention and early intervention strategies. 138 females and 42 males participated in this study. Questionnaires using the EDI, EAT-26 and 16PF as well as an interview schedule were adopted for the study. Results revealed that there appeared to be a significant positive relationship between the EAT-26 and factor O (apprehension-self assured) and factor Q 4(tension-relaxed). There appears to be a significant positive relationship between the EDI and factor I (sensitive versus tough minded), factor L (suspicious versus accepting), factor O (insecure versus complacent) and factor Q4 (tense versus relaxed and easy going). Factor O (apprehension-self assured) appears to predict the scores obtained on the EAT-26 and the propensity to develop binge eating disorder. Factor O (insecure versus complacent) and Q4 (tense versus relaxed) were able to predict the scores on the EDI and the propensity to develop binge eating disorder. Secondary aims of the study revealed that there appears to be a relationship between body image disturbance and the total EAT-26 and EDI scores respectively. This means that participants scoring high on the body dissatisfaction subscale of the EDI will also score higher on the EAT-26 total. There appeared to be a positive relationship between gender of the participants and the total scores of the EAT-26 and EDI respectively. There were 2 interviews carried and the results of the interviews reinforced the quantitative data and previous research on binge eating disorder (Belangee et al, 2003) that personality traits are link to the development of binge eating disorder.