This study aims to improve the modeling of partial SCRAM in the BISON plant model for the Forsmark 2 nuclear reactor after power uprate. Validation of the BISON model against tests performed from March to May in 2013 have shown that this is one of the areas in which there is room for improvement. After partial SCRAM is performed, the model underestimates the reactor power, recirculation flow and steam flow when compared to the measurement data. In BISON the partial SCRAM is modeled using a relative control rod effect vector (ASC vector). The aim is to replace the old values in this vector to improve the model. The new model was shown to give an improved result for the reactor power, recirculation flow and steam flow. The study gives recommendations on how to apply the new model and what values of the relative control rod effect vector that can be used in the future.

Flow boiling in microchannels, while very promising as a cooling technology in electronics thermal management, is still a subject being explored that requires further investigation. Before applying this technology for high heat flux computer chip cooling, challenging issues such as fully understanding boiling mechanisms in confined spaces, extending and stabilising the nucleate boiling regime, suppressing flow boiling instabilities, maintaining uniform flow distribution among microchannels, have to be addressed. If flow boiling is to be used as a thermal management method for high heat flux electronics it is necessary to understand the behaviour of a non-uniform heat distribution, which is typically the case observed in a real operating computer chip. In this study, flow boiling of deionised water in a silicon microchannel heat sink under uniform and non-uniform heating has been investigated with particular attention to flow boiling instabilities. An experimental system was designed and constructed to carry out the experimental investigations. The experimental heat sink consisting of forty parallel rectangular microchannels with 194 μm hydraulic diameter together with integrated inlet and outlet manifold was fabricated on a silicon wafer using inductive coupled plasma dry etching, in conjunction with photolithographic techniques. A design with integrated temperature sensors made from a thin nickel film allows local temperature measurements with a much faster response time and smaller thermal resistance as compared to temperature measurements using thermocouples. The integrated heater was designed to enable either uniform or non-uniform heating (hotspot investigation) with a low thermal resistance between the heater and the channels. Numerical simulations for single phase flow in adiabatic conditions were used to assist the design of the manifold geometry in the microchannels heat sink. Microfabricated temperature sensors were used together with simultaneous high speed imaging in order to obtain a better insight related to temperature fluctuations caused by two-phase flow instabilities under uniform and non-uniform heating. Two types of two-phase instabilities with flow reversal were identified and classified into flow stability maps. The effect of inlet water temperature on flow boiling instabilities was experimentally studied, with the influence of different subcooling conditions on the magnitude of temperatures as well as the influence on temperature uniformity over the heat sink being assessed. The effect of various hotspot locations on flow boiling instabilities has been investigated, with hotspots located in different positions along the heat sink. Bubble growth and departure size have been experimentally investigated. The results of this study demonstrate that bubble growth in microchannels is different from that in macroscale channels. Furthermore, the effects of bubble dynamics on flow instabilities and heat transfer coefficient have been investigated and discussed.

Orientador: Elaine Maria Cardoso / Resumo: O avanço de novas tecnologias, associado à minimização dos custos de fabricação e instala-ção, constitui um grande desafio para a área de refrigeração, uma vez que a geração de calor tem aumentado gradativamente nos últimos anos. Assim, a busca de novos fluidos com pro-priedades térmicas superiores aos comumente usados tornou-se indispensável para melhorar a eficiência energética. Nas últimas décadas os nanofluidos - dispersões de partículas de escala nanométrica (1 a 100nm) em um fluido-base - têm atraído especial interesse não somente da comunidade acadêmica, mas também da indústria em áreas como: a microeletrônica, microflu-ídica, transporte, manufatura, assistência médica, entre outras. O melhor desempenho térmico e a vasta gama de aplicações fazem dos nanofluidos potenciais substitutos dos refrigerantes utilizados em diversos segmentos da engenharia. Dentro desse contexto, o presente trabalho teve como objetivos: o estudo teórico e experimental da influência das propriedades termofísi-cas e concentração de nanofluidos, bem como, das características geométricas da superfície aquecedora sobre o ângulo de contato e a molhabilidade. Também, atenção foi dada à prepa-ração e caracterização dos nanofluidos (Al2O3-água e Fe2O3-água), por meio da análise expe-rimental da condutividade térmica e da viscosidade dinâmica para diferentes concentrações; uma bancada experimental, para aquisição de imagens de gota séssil, foi construída a fim de viabilizar as análises de ângulo de conta... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The advance of new technologies, associated to the minimization of manufacturing and installation costs, presents a great challenge for the refrigeration area, since the heat generation has increased in recent years. Thus, the search for new fluids with thermal properties higher than those commonly used has become indispensable to improve energy efficiency. In recent decades, nanofluids-dispersions of nanometer-scale particles (1 to 100 nm) in a base fluid - have attracted special interest not only from the academic community but also from industry in areas such as microelectronics, microfluidics, transport, manufacturing, medical assistance, among others. In this context, the present work had the following goals: the theoretical and experimental study of the influence of thermophysical properties and nanofluid concentration, as well as the geometric characteristics of the heating surface on the contact angle and wetta-bility. Attention was also given to the preparation and characterization of nanofluids (Al2O3-water and Fe2O3-water) by the experimental analysis of thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity for different concentrations; an experimental apparatus for the acquisition of sessile droplet images was designed in order to analyze the contact angle and wettability; and a computational routine was developed to obtain the drop profile and the surface-fluid interaction for the different nanofluids and surfaces used. Based on database, it was possible to evaluate the pre... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

<div>Two-phase flow and heat transfer has a wide variety of applications ranging from nuclear power plants to computer chip cooling. The efficient designs of these systems require a clear understanding of the mechanisms by which two-phase flows enhance heat transfer. With the rapid growth in computing power, Computational Fluid Dynamics is becoming an increasingly reliable predictive tool to understand the physics underlying two-phase flow and heat transfer. We identify the two chief phenomena</div><div>affecting heat transfer in two-phase flows as being the improved convective effect in bubbly flows, and the phase change phenomenon. We examine three key aspects of</div><div>bubbly flows in the present work namely: a) The flow of bubbles near vertical walls, b) the heat transfer associated with a non-condensable bubble rising near a vertical wall, and c) the heat transfer associated with boiling and condensation involving bubbles.</div><div><br></div><div>The first part involves studying the rise velocity of a layer of bubbles rising near a vertical wall. We derive a scaling between the rise velocity based Reynold’s number and the Archimedes number. The second part involves examining the flow pattern around a single bubble rising under the buoyancy effect in a shear flow near a heated wall, and how it affects the heat transfer from the wall. We study the dependence of the fractional improvement in Nusselt number at the wall on various non-dimensional parameters such as the Archimedes number, the Laplace number and the shear rate. Our study shows the existence of an optimum dimensionless shear rate for heat transfer enhancement and a strong dependence between the flow pattern around the bubble and its associated heat transfer enhancement. The third part involves building a numerical model to study flow boiling in micro-channels. We validate the proposed model with two benchmark problems and two experimental studies. The validated numerical tool is then used to understand the effect of varying the micro-channel inlet flow rate on its heat transfer characteristics. This numerical tool is further developed to include a stagnant micro-layer model that can simulate nucleate boiling. We then use it to study the flow boiling characteristics of a line of bubbles undergoing boiling and lift-off in a shear flow. In the end, based on existing literature in the field, we propose future tasks to be undertaken in the area of numerical two-phase flow.<br></div><div><br></div>

Thesis (B.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, 1979. / Bibliography: leaf 31. / by Garry Wayne Perkins. / Thesis (B.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, 1979.

O presente trabalho envolve a análise experimental do efeito da deposição de nanopartículas por meio da ebulição em piscina na molhabilidade e na textura da superfície. Inicialmente, este estudo apresenta uma análise da literatura sobre métodos de avaliação do ângulo de contato, preparo de nanofluidos, procedimentos de avaliação da rugosidade e possíveis efeitos que a deposição de nanopartículas tem sobre a textura da superfície. Verificou-se para as superfícies recobertas com nanopartículas ângulos de contato próximos a zero e comportamento dinâmico para gotas de água depositadas sobre elas. Desta forma, optou-se por avaliar a molhabilidade qualitativamente através da análise da velocidade de espalhamento de uma gota depositada sobre a superfície recoberta. Caracterizou-se também a massa de nanopartículas depositadas, a morfologia e a rugosidade das superfícies. Efetuou-se o recobrimento das superfícies por meio da ebulição em piscina de nanofluidos a base de água deionizada contendo nanopartículas de Al2O3 (10, 20-30 e 40-80 nm), Cu (25 nm) e SiO2 (15 e 80 nm) para concentrações volumétricas de 0,001, 0,01, 0,1 e 0,5%, submetidos a tempos de ebulição de 15, 30, 45 e 180 minutos em superfícies de alumínio e aço inoxidável. Como resultado final deste estudo concluiu-se que a rugosidade superficial e a molhabilidade se elevam com a deposição das nanopartículas. Além disso, a molhabilidade aumenta com o incremento da área da superfície recoberta com aglomerados. / The present study concerns an investigation on the wettability and the surface texture behavior of flat aluminum and stainless steel plates covered with porous thin-films of nanoparticles obtained through pool boiling of nanofluids. Since the contact angle of the obtained surfaces is small and in many cases the deposited droplet exhibits a dynamic behavior, dynamic top-down analyses of spreading droplets were performed. Evaluations were performed of nanoparticles mass deposition on the sample, surface roughness and micro-structural with an SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy). Experiments were performed for nanofluids containing nanoparticles of Al2O3 (10, 20-30 and 40-80 nm), Cu (25nm) and SiO2 (15 and 80 nm) for volumetric concentrations of 0.001, 0.01, 0.1 and 0.5% for pool boiling time set to 15, 30, 45 and 180 minutes over aluminum and stainless steel plates. As a final result of this study it was found that surface roughness and wettability increase with the deposition of the nanoparticles. In addition, the wettability increases with increasing of the surface area covered with clusters.

O estudo consistiu em uma análise teórica experimental, com o desenvolvimento de uma correlação, dos parâmetros que afetam a ebulição nucleada de refrigerantes halogenados em superfícies cilíndricas lisas. Uma ampla análise da literatura permitiu levantar os distintos tópicos envolvendo este tema destacando entre eles o presente estudo. A análise da literatura envolveu, ainda, um estudo detalhado dos fundamentos da ebulição e das correlações para a previsão do coeficiente de transferência de calor. Foi projetado e construído um aparato experimental no qual foram realizados ensaios envolvendo superfícies de aço inoxidável, cobre e latão, os refrigerantes R-11, R-123, R-12, R-22 e R-134a, fluxos específicos de calor entre 0,8 e 120 kW/m&sup2, pressões reduzidas de 0,008 a 0,26 e rugosidade aritmética média variando entre 0,02 e 3,3 &#956m. A análise destes resultados possibilitou a verificação de comportamentos físicos inéditos segundo a literatura consultada. Destaca-se a análise de efeitos da condução longitudinal e da resistência térmica de contato entre a superfície de transferência de calor e os termopares. Esta análise foi incorporada ao procedimento de determinação da temperatura superficial, e permitiu estabelecer a distribuição de temperaturas ao longo do perímetro da superfície. Finalmente, com base no banco de dados levantado, foi desenvolvida uma correlação para o coeficiente de transferência de calor em ebulição nucleada plenamente desenvolvida de refrigerantes halogenados. / The present research has been focused in a theoretical and experimental analysis of the parameters that affect the pool boiling of halocarbon refrigerants in smooth cylindrical surfaces with the development of a correlation. A wide survey of the literature allowed to list the distinct topics related to this subject and to highlight among them the theme of this study. The literature analysis still involved a detailed study of the pool boiling fundamentals and of the correlations for the pool boiling heat transfer coefficient. An experimental set up has been developed and constructed in which were raise data involving surfaces of stainless steel, copper and brass, the refrigerants R-11, R-123, R-12, R-22 and R-134a, specific heat flux range of 0.8 to 120 kW/m&sup2, reduced pressures from 0.008 to 0.26 and arithmetic mean roughness varying between 0.02 and 3.3 &#956m. The analysis of these results revealed, according to the consulted literature, unpublished physical behaviors. In this work the effects of the longitudinal conduction and of the thermal contact resistance between the heat transfer surface and the thermocouple were analyzed carefully. This analysis was incorporated to the superficial temperature determination procedure and allowed to establish the temperature distribution along the surface perimeter. Finally, using the data base raised in this research, a simple and accurate correlation for the fully developed pool boiling heat transfer coefficient for halocarbon refrigerants applications has been developed.

O presente estudo envolve a análise teórico-experimental da transferência de calor através do mecanismo de ebulição em um único tubo e em banco com três tubos horizontais. A análise da literatura permitiu levantar os parâmetros que podem influenciar o coeficiente de transferência de calor na ebulição em banco de tubos e algumas correlações. O aparato experimental foi adaptado para realização de ensaios envolvendo refrigerantes halogenados, 3 tubos dispostos em fileiras paralelas e 3 distintos diâmetros. Nos experimentos foram utilizados os refrigerantes R-11, R-123 (baixa pressão) e R-134a (média pressão), tubos de latão aquecidos internamente com resistências elétricas, com fluxo de calor específico variando entre 1 e 40 kW/'M POT.2'. Através dos resultados foram observados alguns comportamentos inéditos na influência do acabamento superficial e em banco de tubos. Com base no banco de dados levantado, foi desenvolvida uma correlação para o coeficiente de transferência de calor em ebulição em banco de tubos. Os resultados obtidos por esta correlação apresentaram reduzidos desvios em relação aos experimentais. / The research reported herein is a theoretical and experimental investigation of nucleate boiling heat transfer in an isolated tube and a row of three horizontal tubes. The literature review provided enough information to raise the intervening physical parameters and several correlations. The experimental bench has been developed and adapted to perform experiments with several refrigerants, three different tube diameters, and to accommodate a row of three parallel tubes. The experiments have been carried out with refrigerants R-11, R-123 and R-134a. Heating of the brass tubes has been provided by tubular electrical heaters inserted inside the tubes. The heat flux varied from 1 to 40 kW/'M POT.2'. Experiments have been carried out by successively heating two and three tubes. Effects of boiling in tubes underneath (lower level) have been investigated. Finally a correlation for the heat transfer coefficient in successive tubes of a tube bank has been developed. The correlation presents good accuracy with respect to data from the present investigation.

O presente trabalho foi delineado considerando-se a importância de fungos filamentosos e leveduras, os quais estão associados a diversas patologias no homem e animais. Deve-se considerar ainda que o leite e seus derivados lácteos contaminados com estes microrganismos podem constituir potenciais vias de transmissão de zoonoses a eles relacionados. Foram analisadas amostras de leite cru dos tipos A, B e C colhidas nas próprias propriedades leiteiras, bem como amostras de leite comercializado diretamente ao consumidor, visando-se a comparação da qualidade destes produtos quanto à presença e quantidade de fungos. Procedeu-se ainda à avaliação da susceptibilidade dos fungos isolados das amostras de leite às relações temperatura/tempo empregados nos processos de pasteurização e avaliação da sensibilidade destes isolados à fervura do leite. Foram analisadas 70 amostras de leite, sendo 50 de tanques de refrigeração de propriedades leiteiras, 10 de latões de propriedades de exploração leiteira e 10 de latões de transportadores e distribuidores que armazenam e comercializam leite clandestino, sendo que não houve diferença estatisticamente significante entre as medianas das quantidades de unidades formadoras de colônias de fungos/mL de Leite das diferentes procedências, indicando que o nível de contaminação por fungos nas amostras destas três origens foi similar. Foram isolados, em diferentes percentagens, fungos filamentosos e leveduras de todas as amostras de leite das diferentes procedências: Candida spp. (C. krusei, C. guilliermondii, C. tropicalis, C. kefyr, dentre outras), Geotrichum spp., Rhodotorula spp., Trichosporon spp., Aureobasidium sp., Penicillium spp., Acremonium spp., Chrysosporium sp., Mucor spp., Aspergillus spp. Todos os gêneros e espécies isoladas foram submetidos aos testes de pasteurização rápida e lenta, bem como a fervura. O processo de pasteurização rápida foi o procedimento no qual houve maior resistência (72,18%) por parte dos isolados de leveduras e fungos filamentosos submetidos ao teste na metodologia aplicada, seguido pelo processo de fervura (15,89%) e o de pasteurização lenta (0,99%). / The present study was outlined considering the importance of filamentous fungi and yeasts, associated to various pathologies in man and animals. It must be considered that milk and dairy products when contaminated with these microorganisms can represent a potential means of zoonosis transmission related to them. Samples of raw milk types A, B and C, collected in dairy farms, as well as milk sold directly to the consumer, were analysed, aiming the comparison of the quality of these products as to the presence and quantity of fungi. The susceptibility of the isolates to the temperature/time rates employed in pasteurization and boiling was also evaluated. Seventy samples of raw milk were analysed, 50 from bulk tanks, 10 from small tanks of milk from dairy farms, and 10 from transportation tanks and distributors that store and sell clandestine milk. No statistically significant difference was observed between medians of the quantity of colonies forming units of fungi/mL of milk from the different sources, indicating that the level of contamination by fungi was similar when the three sources were compared. Filamentous fungi and yeasts were isolated in different percentages from all the samples from the different sources: Candida spp. (C. krusei, C. guilliermondii, C. tropicalis, C. kefyr, etc.), Geotrichum spp., Rhodotorula spp., Trichosporon spp., Aureobasidium sp., Penicillium spp., Acremonium spp., Chrysosporium sp., Mucor spp., Aspergillus spp. All isolates were submitted to pasteurization and boiling. Quick pasteurization was the procedure in which the highest resistance (72.18%) of the isolates was verified, followed by boiling (15.89%) and slow pasteurization (0.99%).

Dissipadores de calor baseados em microcanais são apresentados como solução para a remoção de fluxos de calor elevados em espaços restritos, pois proporcionam elevados coeficientes de transferência de calor quando comparados a canais convencionais. Tais trocadores também proporcionam elevadas razões entre a área superficial em contato com o refrigerante por unidade de volume do dissipador. Além dos microcanais, a utilização de nanofluidos também se apresenta como tecnologia com potencial de incremento do coeficiente de transferência de calor. Os nanofluidos consistem na adição de nanopartículas a um fluido base visando alterar suas propriedades de transporte termodinâmicas. Neste contexto, o objetivo do presente estudo é avaliar o coeficiente de transferência de calor para escoamentos monofásicos e ebulição convectiva de nanofluidos aquosos no interior de microcanais. Para isto, foram realizados experimentos em canais com diâmetro de 1,1 mm e comprimento de 200 mm para água deionizada, nanofluidos de alumina com diâmetros de 20-30 e 40-80 nm, nanofluidos de dióxido de silício com diâmetros de 15 e 80 nm, e nanofluidos de cobre com diâmetro de 25 nm. Estas soluções foram ensaiadas para concentrações volumétricas de nanopartículas de 0,001, 0,01 e 0,1, velocidades mássicas de 200, 400 e 600 kg/m2s e fluxos de calor de 20 a 350 kW/m2. A análise dos resultados revelou que a adição de nanopartículas a água deionizada proporciona o incremento do número de Nusselt para escoamentos monofásicos, principalmente na região inicial do tubo. Concluiu-se que os efeitos da adição de nanopartículas a um fluido base no coeficiente de transferência de calor durante a ebulição convectiva estão relacionados ao recobrimento da superfície com uma camada porosa. A deposição de nanopartículas com diâmetro inferior a 30 nm resultou na redução do coeficiente de transferência de calor e das instabilidades térmicas do escoamento em relação a água deionizada. O coeficiente de transferência de calor e as instabilidades térmicas não apresentaram variações significativas da deposição de nanopartículas com diâmetro superior a 40 nm. Por meio da análise da textura das superfícies recobertas e do critério de nucleação proposto por Kandlikar et al. (1997) concluiu-se que tal comportamento encontra-se associado aos efeitos do acabamento superficial na densidade de cavidades de nucleação ativas. / Microchannels based heat exchangers were introduced as a solution to high heat flux removal in restrict spaces due to their high heat transfer coefficients compared to heat exchangers based on conventional channels. The high ratio of surface are per volume is an additional advantage to microchannels in relation to conventional channels. Beside the microchannels technology, the nanofluids also present itself as a technique with potential to increase the heat transfer coefficient. Nanofluids consist of a solution containing nanoparticles dispersed in a base fluid with the goal to improve its thermodynamic and transport properties. In this context, the objective of the present study is to evaluate the heat transfer coefficient for single-phase flow and convective boiling of aqueous nanofluids inside microchannels. Experiments were performed for channels with internal diameter of 1.1mm and 200 mm long for DI-water, nanofluids containing alumina- (nanoparticles diameters of 20-30 and 40-80 nm), silicon dioxide (nanoparticles diameters of 15 and 80 nm), and copper (nanoparticles diameter of 25 nm). These solutions were evaluated for volumetric concentrations of 0.001, 0.01 and 0.1%, mass velocities of 200, 400 and 600 kg/m2s and heat fluxes from 20 to 350 kW/m2. The analysis of the results revealed that the addition of nanoparticles to DI-water causes an increment in the Nusselt number for single phase flows, especially at the inlet of the tube. The results for flow boiling indicated that the effects of adding nanoparticles to the base fluid are related to the deposition on the heating surface of a nanoparticles porous layer due to the boiling process. The deposition of nanoparticles smaller than 30 nm promoted a reduction of the heat transfer coefficient compared to DI-water on a clean surface, and thermal instabilities were minimized. For the deposition of nanoparticles larger than 40 nm these parameters did not presented significant variations in comparison to DI-water. A combined analysis of the surfaces finishing and the criterion of Kandlikar et al. (1997) for bubble nucleation revealed that such behaviors are correlated to the effects of the surface texture associated to the boiling process on the density of active nucleation cavities.