Em linhas gerais, esta dissertação de mestrado envolve o estudo de padrões de escoaomento durante a ebulição convectiva em microcanais. Resultados experimentais foram levantados para um tubo com diâmetro de 2,32 mm durante a evaporação convectiva dos refrigerantes R134a e R245fa. Para a investigação, técnicas experimentais e de análise foram desenvolvidas. A caracterização dos padrões de escoamento envolveu o tratamento simultâneo de sinais provenientes dos seguintes dispositivos: um par diodo/sensor-laser tendo um tubo transparente entre eles no interior do qual ocorre o escoamento bifásico; um transdutor de pressão piezo-elétrico de tamanho reduzido com o objetivo de determinar a variação local da pressão do escoamento; e de um micro-termopar em contato com o fluido refrigerante. A técnica de tratamento de dados utilizada envolve a aglomeração progressiva de dados que apresentem características médias similares através do algoritmo k-means. Os sinais de pressão, intensidade de radiação e temperatura foram adquiridos simultaneamente a uma freqüência de 25 kHz. Imagens simultâneas do escoamento bifásico a uma velocidade de captura em torno de 10.000 imagens/s foram levantadas através de uma câmera de filmagem rápida (até 100.000 imagens/s), e os padrões de escoamentos observados contrastados aos resultados fornecidos pelo método proposto. Baseado nesta análise, mapas de escoamento foram propostos, os quais incorporaram não apenas critérios subjetivos como a visualização, mas também objetivos como as variações transientes da pressão local do escoamento e da morfologia do escoamento através do seu efeito na dispersão da radiação emitida pelo foto-diodo. Os resultados previstos pelo método objetivo apresentam concordância razoável com os dados caracterizados com base em visualizações. Adicionalmente, características de bolhas alongadas foram determinadas. / The present research has been focused on the study of flow patterns inside channels of diameter less than 3 mm during the convective evaporation of refrigerants such as R134a and R245fa. For the investigation of such topics, experimental techniques and methods of analysis of results were developed. A broad database was gathered in an experimental test facility. The characterization of flow patterns involved the simultaneous processing of signals from the following devices: a pair diode / laser-sensor having a transparent tube between them, within which occurs the two-phase flow; a micro piezoelectric pressure transducer to determine the local variation of pressure of the flow and a micro-thermocouple fixed within the fluid. The technique used in data processing involves the gradual agglomeration of data having similar average characteristics; this method was developed based on the k-means clustering algorithm. The signals from the transducers were acquired simultaneously at a frequency of 25 kHz. The program for the acquisition and for processing of the signals was developed using LabView. Simultaneous images of two-phase flow at a speed of capture around 10,000 images / s were obtained through a high speed camera and the observed flow patterns were contrasted to the results provided by the objective method. Based on this analysis, flow maps were proposed, which incorporate not only subjective criteria such as visualization, but also objective criteria like the transient variations of local pressure of the flow, temperature of the fluid and the effect of the flow morphology based on the dispersion of light which effect was captured by the photo-diode. The maps obtained by the objective method were compared against flow pattern segregated based on visualization and a reasonable agreement was obtained. Besides the elongated bubble characteristics were determined.

O presente trabalho foi delineado considerando-se a importância de fungos filamentosos e leveduras, os quais estão associados a diversas patologias no homem e animais. Deve-se considerar ainda que o leite e seus derivados lácteos contaminados com estes microrganismos podem constituir potenciais vias de transmissão de zoonoses a eles relacionados. Foram analisadas amostras de leite cru dos tipos A, B e C colhidas nas próprias propriedades leiteiras, bem como amostras de leite comercializado diretamente ao consumidor, visando-se a comparação da qualidade destes produtos quanto à presença e quantidade de fungos. Procedeu-se ainda à avaliação da susceptibilidade dos fungos isolados das amostras de leite às relações temperatura/tempo empregados nos processos de pasteurização e avaliação da sensibilidade destes isolados à fervura do leite. Foram analisadas 70 amostras de leite, sendo 50 de tanques de refrigeração de propriedades leiteiras, 10 de latões de propriedades de exploração leiteira e 10 de latões de transportadores e distribuidores que armazenam e comercializam leite clandestino, sendo que não houve diferença estatisticamente significante entre as medianas das quantidades de unidades formadoras de colônias de fungos/mL de Leite das diferentes procedências, indicando que o nível de contaminação por fungos nas amostras destas três origens foi similar. Foram isolados, em diferentes percentagens, fungos filamentosos e leveduras de todas as amostras de leite das diferentes procedências: Candida spp. (C. krusei, C. guilliermondii, C. tropicalis, C. kefyr, dentre outras), Geotrichum spp., Rhodotorula spp., Trichosporon spp., Aureobasidium sp., Penicillium spp., Acremonium spp., Chrysosporium sp., Mucor spp., Aspergillus spp. Todos os gêneros e espécies isoladas foram submetidos aos testes de pasteurização rápida e lenta, bem como a fervura. O processo de pasteurização rápida foi o procedimento no qual houve maior resistência (72,18%) por parte dos isolados de leveduras e fungos filamentosos submetidos ao teste na metodologia aplicada, seguido pelo processo de fervura (15,89%) e o de pasteurização lenta (0,99%). / The present study was outlined considering the importance of filamentous fungi and yeasts, associated to various pathologies in man and animals. It must be considered that milk and dairy products when contaminated with these microorganisms can represent a potential means of zoonosis transmission related to them. Samples of raw milk types A, B and C, collected in dairy farms, as well as milk sold directly to the consumer, were analysed, aiming the comparison of the quality of these products as to the presence and quantity of fungi. The susceptibility of the isolates to the temperature/time rates employed in pasteurization and boiling was also evaluated. Seventy samples of raw milk were analysed, 50 from bulk tanks, 10 from small tanks of milk from dairy farms, and 10 from transportation tanks and distributors that store and sell clandestine milk. No statistically significant difference was observed between medians of the quantity of colonies forming units of fungi/mL of milk from the different sources, indicating that the level of contamination by fungi was similar when the three sources were compared. Filamentous fungi and yeasts were isolated in different percentages from all the samples from the different sources: Candida spp. (C. krusei, C. guilliermondii, C. tropicalis, C. kefyr, etc.), Geotrichum spp., Rhodotorula spp., Trichosporon spp., Aureobasidium sp., Penicillium spp., Acremonium spp., Chrysosporium sp., Mucor spp., Aspergillus spp. All isolates were submitted to pasteurization and boiling. Quick pasteurization was the procedure in which the highest resistance (72.18%) of the isolates was verified, followed by boiling (15.89%) and slow pasteurization (0.99%).

This dissertation focuses on the effects of superhydrophobic (SHPo) surfaces on thermal transport. The work is divided into two main categories: thermal transport without phase change and thermal transport with phase change. Thermal transport without phase change is the topic of four stand-alone chapters. Three address jet impingement at SHPo surfaces and the fourth considers natural convection at a vertical, SHPo wall. Thermal transport with phase change is the topic of a single stand-alone chapter exploring pool boiling at SHPo surfaces. Two chapters examining jet impingement present analytical models for thermal transport; one considered an isothermal wall and the other considered an isoflux wall. The chapter considering the isothermal scenario has been archivally published. Conclusions are presented for both models. The models indicated that the Nusselt number decreased dramatically as the temperature jump length increased. Further, the influence of radial position, jet Reynolds number, Prandtl number and isoflux versus isothermal heating become negligible as temperature jump length increased. The final chapter concerning jet impingement reports an experimental exploration of jet impingement at post patterned SHPo surfaces with varying microfeature pitch and cavity fraction. The empirical results show a decrease in Nusselt number relative to smooth hydrophobic surfaces for small pitch and cavity fraction and the isoflux model agrees well with this data when the ratio of temperature jump length to slip length is 3.1. At larger pitch and cavity fractions, the empirical results have higher Nusselt numbers than the SHPo surfaces with small pitch and cavity fraction but remain smaller than the smooth hydrophobic surface. We attribute this to the influence of small wetting regions. The chapter addressing natural convection presents an analytical model for buoyant flow at a vertical SHPo surface. The Nusselt number decreased dramatically as temperature jump length increased, with greater decrease occurring near the lower edge and at higher Rayleigh number. Thermal transport with phase change is the topic of the final stand-alone chapter concerning pool boiling, which has been archivally published. Surface heat flux as a function of surface superheat was reported for SHPo surfaces with rib and post patterning at varying microfeature pitch, cavity fraction, and microfeature height. Nucleate boiling is more suppressed on post patterned surfaces than rib patterned surfaces. At rib patterned surfaces, transition superheat decreases as cavity fraction increases. Increasing microfeature height modestly increases the transition superheat. Once stable film boiling is achieved, changes in surface microstructure negligibly influence thermal transport.

De manière générale, les composites oxyde/oxyde sont la plupart du temps élaborés par frittage, par voie sol-gel ou par infiltration en phase gazeuse, CVI (« Chemical vapor infiltration »). Ces techniques d’élaboration comportent de nombreuses étapes engendrant un temps long d’élaboration ce qui peut entraîner une détérioration des propriétés du composite. Cette thèse s’intéresse à un procédé original et rapide de densification de préformes fibreuses développé par le Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA) : la caléfaction. Ce procédé est connu pour élaborer des composites C/C ou C/SiC à partir d’un précurseur liquide. Cependant, la possibilité d’élaborer des composites oxyde/oxyde n’a jamais été testée. L’objectif de ce travail est d’étudier la réalisation de composites oxydes/oxydes par ce procédé. Plusieurs matrices ont été réalisées telles que la silice, l’alumine et le système ternaire aluminosilicate de baryum, BaSi2Al2O8. Plusieurs paramètres expérimentaux ont été étudiés tels que la température d’élaboration, le temps de manipulation et la composition du précurseur. Des caractérisations microstructurales et physico-chimiques ont permis de caractériser les matériaux élaborés. Plusieurs modifications ont été apportées au montage expérimental afin de permettre une meilleure reproductibilité des essais et un meilleur suivi thermique lors de l’élaboration de matrice oxyde. / Nowadays, oxide/oxide composites are most of the time developed by sintering, sol-gel process or CVI (Chemical Vapor Infiltration). These techniques include many steps of synthesis leading to a long time of synthesis and possible deteriorations of the properties of the composite. This thesis focuses on an original and rapid process developed by French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA): the film boiling chemical vapor infiltration. This technique is already used to synthesize C/C and C/SiC composites but works have never focused on oxide/oxide composites. The main goal of this thesis is to synthesize oxide/oxide composites by film boiling chemical vapor infiltration. Works were focused on alumina, silica and barium aluminosilicate matrices. Several experimental parameters were studied: temperature, time and liquid precursor. Microstructural and physicochemical characterizations were done on composites. Several modifications of the experimental setup have been made in order to allow a better reproducibility of the tests and a better thermal monitoring.

In observations of steady-state nucleate boiling, fluctuations in the temperature and heat flux might initially appear to be completely random. However, it was shown that, for a vertically mounted platinum wire in liquid nitrogen, the fluctuations about the steady-state exhibit an average counterclockwise circulation when the heat flux is plotted versus the superheat temperature. An area associated with the average circulation was proposed as a numerical measure of stability for steady-state nucleate boiling. The mechanisms for the generation of these fluctuations are thought to be the feedback of the bubbles rising past the wire and the differential heating and cooling that this engenders. Data similar to the data on the vertical wire have been obtained using the same wire mounted horizontally. Although the counterclockwise circulation mentioned above is still seen, the measure of stability as proposed earlier, is less useful for prediction of the transition to film boiling. This reduced sensitivity can be attributed to the fact that the possibility of feedback through the rising bubbles has been eliminated.

Nucleate boiling is widely used as a means of heat transfer in thermal management systems because of its high heat transfer rates. This study explored the effects of heat flux and surface geometry on heat transfer behavior and bubble dynamics of nucleate pool boiling in microgravity. A single platinum wire, a twist of three platinum wires, and a twist of four platinum wires were used as boiling surfaces for two separate experiments performed in microgravity on board NASA’s parabolic flight aircraft. Wire temperature, thermocouple, and video measurements were taken during a total of 44 microgravity parabolas. Results show that the crevices formed by wire twisting provide regions of localized superheating and are able to reduce the heat flux necessary for boiling onset to occur. This localized heating results in a lower average heater temperature and shortened superheating periods, but this effect decreases when more wires are present in the twist. This behavior was investigated and confirmed with a finite volume, transient conduction model. This model also showed that the water temperature profile at the bubble onset indicates that water at a certain distance from the wire surface, in this experiment 50 μm, needs to be heated to above saturation temperature in order to initiate and generate a burst of bubbles. A relative bubble area analysis method was able to quantify vapor production and bubble behavior across multiple frames of video. Application of this method revealed a transition of bubble behavior from large isolated bubbles to jet flows of small bubbles, and this method allowed the heat flux contribution of jet flows to be approximated. Additionally, a new mode of jet flows was observed. Particle image velocimetry was used to provide approximate velocities of small bubble jet flows and their influence on heat transfer to the bulk fluid.

L’essor des matériaux composites à matrice céramique dans les domaines de l’aéronautique, du spatial et du nucléaire force le développement de nouveaux matériaux et procédés associés afin de répondre à l’exigence toujours plus poussée de ces secteurs d’activité. La course à la réduction des coûts de fabrication a notamment contribué à ces développements. Dans cet objectif, le LCTS contribue à développer un moyen original et alternatif pour la synthèse d’interphases et de matrices des CMC par densification du renfort fibreux : le procédé dit « de caléfaction ». Ces travaux de recherche ont pour principal objectif l’étude de précurseurs originaux pour l’élaboration de matériaux pyrocarbone (pyC) et Si-O-C par ce procédé. Ce mémoire s’articule ainsi autour de 2parties expérimentales que sont i) l’élaboration de revêtements pyC à partir de précurseurs alcools et ii)l’élaboration de revêtements Si-O-C à partir de précurseurs organosilylés.Les diverses techniques de caractérisation physico-chimique utilisées, couplées aux nombreuses expériences réalisées dans ces travaux ont permis de relier la structure et/ou la composition chimique des revêtements obtenus aux paramètres expérimentaux utilisés (précurseurs, températures et durées d’élaboration). Des conditions optimales de préparation de PyC de très haute qualité à partir d’alcools ont été obtenues. Quant au système Si-O-C, il est montré que la structure et la composition des dépôts dépendent des conditions. / The growth of ceramic matrix composite (CMC) in the fields of aeronautic, spatial and nuclear pushes the development of new material and associated processes in order to answer to the tough requirements in this business sectors. Fabrication cost savings, in particular, has helped these improvements. In this aim, the LTCS has contributed to develop an original and alternative device for the synthesis of CMC’s interphases and matrices : the “film boiling densification”.This PhD as for key objective the study of original precursors for PyC and Si-O-C fabrication using this process. This manuscript is divided into two experimental parts dedicated to : i) the fabrication of carbon coatings from alcohols and ii) the fabrication of Si-O-C coatings from silylated precursors.The diverse characterization technics coupled to the numerous experiments permitted to connect the coatings structure and/or the chemical composition to the experimental parameters (precursor, temperature,duration). Optimal conditions were found for the preparation of high quality PyC from alcohols.For Si-O-C system, it is show that structure and chemical composition depends on experimental conditions.

Les écoulements diphasiques avec ou sans changement de phase sont présents dans les applications terrestres et spatiales avec notamment le contrôle thermique des satellites par boucle diphasique, l’alimentation en propergol des moteurs de fusée et le traitement des eaux usées pour les missions d’exploration spatiale. Des expériences d’ébullition convective dans un tube chauffé avec du HFE7000 ont été menées en écoulement vertical ascendant au sol et en microgravité conditions afin de caractériser les régimes d’écoulements et de mesurer les transferts de chaleur, le taux de vide et les pertes de pression. Les mesures de taux de vide ont permis de caractériser la vitesse moyenne de la phase vapeur et l’épaisseur du film liquide en écoulement annulaire. En microgravité, l’épaisseur du film liquide et le frottement interfacial sont inférieurs aux conditions de gravité terrestre. La structure du film liquide a été caractérisée par des visualisation rapides. L’impact de la gravité, des vitesses superficielles du liquide et de la vapeur sur la célérité et la fréquence des ondes perturbatrices a été mis en évidence. Deux techniques de mesure ont été implémentées et comparées pour la mesure du coefficient d’échange de chaleur. En ébullition convective saturée pour des titres massiques supérieurs à 0.2, le transfert de chaleur est peu sensible à la gravité et en bon accord avec des corrélations de la littérature. En ébullition nucléée sous refroidie pour des titres inférieurs à 0.1, le transfert de chaleur est significativement plus faible en microgravité. / Two-phase flows with or without phase change are present in terrestrial and space applications like thermal control of satellites, propellant supply for launchers, and waste water treatment for space exploration missions. Flow boiling experiment with HFE7000 were conducted in a heated tube in vertical upward flow on ground and in microgravity conditions to collect data on flow patterns, pressure drops, heat transfers, void fraction. Void fraction measurements allowed to measure mean gas velocity and the liquid film thickness in annular flow. In microgravity condition, the liquid film thickness and the interfacial shear stress are significantly lower than in normal gravity. A detail analysis of the film structure was performed by image processing. The impact of gravity and liquid and vapour superficial velocities on the disturbance waves velocities and frequencies was investigated. Two different measurement techniques were used and compared to determine the heat transfer coefficient. For quality values greater than 0.2, HTC is not sensitive to gravity and is in good agreement with classical correlations of the literature. For qualities smaller than 0.1, in the subcooled nucleate boiling regime HTC is significantly smaller in microgravityconditions.

This dissertation explores the physics of droplet impingement on superhydrophobic surfaces. The research is divided in three categories. First, the effect of a slip boundary condition on droplet spreading/retracting is considered. A model is developed based on energy conservation to evaluate spreading rates on surfaces exhibiting isotropic and anisotropic slip. The results show that larger slip causes the droplet to spread out farther owing to reduced friction at the interface for both slip scenarios. Furthermore, effects of slip become magnified for large Weber numbers due to the larger solid-liquid contact area during the process. On surfaces with anisotropic slip, droplets adopt an elliptical shape following the azimuthal contour of the slip on the surface. It is common for liquid to penetrate into the cavities at the superhydrophobic interface following droplet impact. Once penetrated, the flow is said to be in the Wenzel state and many superhydrophobic advantages, such as self-cleaning and drag-reduction, become negated. Transition from the Wenzel to the Cassie state (liquid resides above the texture) is referred to as dewetting and is the focus of the second piece of this dissertation. Micro-pillar pitch, height and temperature play a role on dewetting dynamics. The results show that dewetting rates increase with increasing pillar height and increasing surface temperature. A scaling model is constructed to obtain an explanation for the experimental observations and suggests that increasing pillar height increasing the driving dewetting force, while increasing surface temperature decreases dissipation. The last piece of work of this dissertation entails droplet impingement on superheated surfaces (100°C - 400°C). We find that the Leidenfrost point (LFP) occurs at a lower temperature on a hydrophobic surface than a hydrophilic one, where the LFP refers to the lowest temperature at which secondary atomization ceases to occur. This behavior is attributed to the manner in which vapor bubbles grow at the solid-liquid interface. Also in this work, high-speed photographs reveal that secondary atomization can be significantly suppressed on a superhydrophobic surface owing to the micro-pillar forest which allows vapor to escape hence minimizing bubble formation within the droplet. However, a more in-depth study into different superhydrophobic texture patterns later reveals that atomization intensity can significantly increase for small pitch values given the obstruction to vapor flow presented by the increased frequency of the pillars.

The high ozone depletion and global warming potentials of fluorocarbon refrigerants have resulted in prohibitions and restrictions in many markets. Hydrocarbon refrigerants have low environmental impacts and are successfully used in domestic refrigerators and car air conditioners but replacing fluorocarbons in centrifugal chillers for air conditioning applications is unknown. Hydrocarbon replacements need a heat transfer correlation for refrigerant in flooded evaporators and predictions for operating conditions, capacity and performance. Safety precautions for large quantities of hydrocarbon refrigerants are needed and control of overpressure in plantrooms requires accurate prediction. Reliable correlations exist for forced convection in a single phase flow, condensation outside tubes and evaporation off sprayed tubes. For flooded evaporators this thesis proposes a new correlation for forced convection boiling of any refrigerant. An enhancement factor is combined with a modified Chen coefficient using recent pool boiling and forced convection correlations outside tubes. This correlates within typically a factor of two to known boiling literature measurements for CFC-113, CFC-11, HCFC-123, HFC-134a and HC-601. The operating conditions, capacity and performance of replacement hydrocarbons in centrifugal chillers were predicted using fluorocarbon performance as a model. With the new heat transfer correlation hydrocarbon predictions for flooded evaporators were made. For any fluorocarbon refrigerant there exists a replacement mixture of hydrocarbons which with a rotor speed increase about 40% gives the same cooling capacity in the same centrifugal chiller under the same operating conditions. For example replacing HCFC-123 in a flooded evaporator with HC-601/602 [90.4/9.6] and increasing the rotor speed by 43% will increase the coefficient of performance by 4.5% at the same cooling capacity. The maximum plantroom overpressure considered was from leakage and ignition of a uniform air/refrigerant mixture with maximum laminar burning velocity. Flow was modelled using a turbulence viscosity due to Launder and Spalding and turbulent deflagration using a reaction progress variable after Zimont. These partial differential equations were solved approximately for two and three dimensional geometries using finite volume methods from the Fluent program suite. Simple overpressure predictions from maximum flame area approximations agreed with Fluent results within 13.7% promising safe plantroom design without months of computer calculation.