<p>This thesis concerns various aspects of the durability offibre optic sensors embedded in composite. Since repair orreplacement of embedded sensors is not generally possible, thefunctional reliability of embedded sensors is one of the mostimportant prerequisites for successful use. The main researchobjective was to investigate the interaction between the sensorand the composite, and how this is affecting the mechanical andoptical sensor response. Fibre optic sensors embedded incomposite structures induce local stress concentrations whenthe composite is subjected to mechanical loads andenvironmental changes such as temperature and moisture. Acomplex transfer of stresses through the interfaces between theembedded sensor and the composite occurs and can result inlarge local stresses in the composite and a significant changein the response of the embedded sensor. These stressconcentrations make the interfaces susceptible todebonding.</p><p>The sensor performance was studied experimentally andnumerically. Some basic results were generated for the EFPI andBragg grating sensors. The phase-strain response was determinedduring static and fatigue loading. The results showed that thesensors were more reliable in compression than in tensilestatic and fatigue loading. Generally, the sensor reliabilityduring loading was significantly improved for the Bragg gratingsensors over that of the EFPI sensor, as an effect of thesensor geometry. This was also demonstrated in theinvestigations on impacts. Impacts do not necessarily result indamage in the composite, but might cause debonding or otherfailure modes in the sensor area. Large, local stressconcentrations occur at several positions in the EFPI sensor,which pointed out that this sensor type was not suitable forembedded applications.</p><p>The shift in focus from the sensor concept based on the EFPIsensor to that based on the Bragg grating sensor manifesteditself in several studies. The calculated deformation fieldaround an embedded optical fibre was verified in experimentsusing a high-resolution moiré interferometric technique.Furthermore, the improvement in the coating technology wasverified. A significant higher interfacial strength wasobtained with the silane-treated glass surface. The resultsindicated that at least a twofold improvement of the shearstrength was obtained.</p><p>To simultaneously measure the in-plane strain components andthe temperature change, embedded Bragg grating sensors werearranged in a rosette configuration. The relationship betweenthe optical response from each sensor and the strains in thelaminate was numerically and analytically established.</p><p>Damage lead to stress redistribution in the sensor region,which may influence the output from the embedded Bragg gratingsensor. The effect was numerically evaluated for interfacialdamage, and was compared to that of a sensor with undamagedinterface. The results showed that debonding might have asignificant influence, in particular for combined thermal andmechanical loading.</p><p><b>Keywords</b>: composites, fibre optic sensor, embedded, EFPIsensor, Bragg grating sensor, durability, fatigue, impact,strain measurement, interface, stress analysis</p>

High-speed optical networks will require all-optical signalprocessing to avoid bottleneck due to optical-to-electrical (O/E)and electrical-to-optical (E/O) conversion. Enabling of opticalprocessing tasks such as optical buffering and data synchronizationwill require large tunable delay. Recently, slow-light physics gotwide attention to generate tunable delay. However, for a slow-lightsystem large delay comes at the expense of increased distortion.This dissertation presents a study of the slow-light systems andquantifies the limitations imposed on delay due to distortion andsystem resource constraints. Optimal designs for two- and three-lineBrillouin slow-light systems showed fractional pulse delay of up to1.7 compared to a single-line gain system. Optimal designs forbroadband Brillouin gain system showed upto 100\% delay improvementcompared to the Gaussian pump. Wavelength conversion and dispersionbased tunable delay systems showed bit delay of 15 bits. An opticalbuffer based on photorefractive medium for real-time data storagewas demonstrated by storing and retrieving a 7-bit data sequence.

The objective of this thesis was to develop applications of monolithic fiber devices and actively controlled fibers. A special twin-core fiber known as a ‘Gemini’ fiber was used to construct equal arm-length fiber interferometers, impervious to temperature and mechanical perturbations. A broadband add/drop multiplexer was constructed by inscribing fiber Bragg gratings in the arms of a Gemini Mach-Zehnder interferometer. A broadband interferometric nanosecond switch was constructed from a micro-structured Gemini fiber with incorporated metal electrodes. Additionally, a Michelson fiber interferometer was built from an asymmetric twin-core fiber and used as a high-temperature sensor. While the device could be readily used to measure temperatures below 300 °C, an annealing process was required to extend the range up to 700 °C. The work included development, construction and evaluation of the components along with numerical simulations to estimate their behaviors and to understand the underlying processes. The thesis also explored the use of electrically controlled fibers for filtering in the microwave domain. An ultra-narrow phase-shifted fiber Bragg grating inscribed in a fiber with internal electrodes was used as a scanning filter to measure modulation frequencies applied to an optical carrier. A similar grating was used inside a dual-wavelength fiber laser cavity, to generated tunable microwave beat frequencies. The studied monolithic fiber interferometers and actively controlled fibers provide excellent building blocks in such varied field as in microwave photonics, telecommunications, sensors, and high-speed switching, and will allow for further applications in the future. / Syftet med denna avhandling var att utveckla tillämpningar av monolitiska fiber komponenter samt aktivt kontrollerbara fiber. En speciell tvillingkärnefiber, även kallad ’Geminifiber’ användes för att konstruera fiber interferometrar med identisk armlängd som ej påverkas av termiska och mekaniska variationer. En bredbanding utbytarmultiplexor konstruerades genom att skriva in fiber Bragg gitter inuti grenarna på en Gemini Mach-Zehnder interferometer. Geminifibrer med interna metallelektroder användes för att konstruera en bredbandig nanosekundsnabb interferometrisk fiberomkopplare. Därtill användes en tvillingkärnefiber som en hög-temperatursensor. Även om komponenten direkt kan användas upp till 300 °C, måste den värmebehandlas för att kunna användas upp till 700 °C. Arbetet har innefattat utveckling, konstruktion och utvärdering av komponenterna parallellt med numeriska simuleringar för att analysera deras beteenden samt få insikt om de underliggande fysikaliska processerna. Avhandlingen behandlar även tillämpningar av en elektriskt styrbar fiber för att filtrera radiofrekvenser. Ett ultrasmalt fasskiftat fiber Bragg gitter skrevs in i en fiber med interna elektroder och användes som ett svepande filter för att mäta modulationsfrekvensen på en optisk bärfrekvens. Ett liknande gitter användes inuti en laserkavitet för att generera två olika våglängder samtidigt. Dessa två våglängder användes sedan för att generera en svävningsfrekvens i mikrovågsbandet. De undersökta monolitiska fiberinterferometrarna och de aktivt styrbara fibrerna erbjuder en utmärkt byggsten inom så pass skiljda områden som Mikrovågsfotonik, Telekommunikation, Sensorer samt Höghastighets-omkopplare och bör kunna användas inom många olika tillämpningar i framtiden. / <p>QC 20130226</p>

Polymer waveguides present a potentially low cost alternative to electronics in communication systems. Polymers offer relatively straightforward and economical fabrication when compared to conventional materials. In this study, a fabrication process for Bragg gratings in polymer waveguides was developed. Waveguides were designed using finite-element analysis, patterned via e-beam lithography, and a detailed fabrication method was developed. Surface-Plasmon Resonance (SPR) is a widely accepted method for biological and chemical sensing. Measurement of bulk refractive index changes and specific surface binding is a crucial part in any biosensing. Design and fabrication of a novel self-referencing SPR sensor is described and its functionality is tested.

This thesis concerns with the development of a dual-parameter sensor based on fiber Bragg grating (FBG) and a packaging design for high pressure sensing in harsh environment. This thesis starts by introducing a novel design of a partially coated FBG, using a metallic insert and a thermal curing epoxy. An analytical opto-mechanical model, based on couple mode theory, was developed and presented. The experimental and modelling result of the optical response of the partially coated FBG were compared and shown to be in excellent agreement. The experiments were executed on a custom-built fiber optic calibration station. The coated FBG sensor has a temperature sensitivity of 26.9 ± 0.3 pm/°C, which is 2.7 times higher than a bare fiber; and a force sensitivity of 0.104 nm/N, which is 13 times smaller than a bare fiber. The zero reference of the sensor has a drift of a maximum of 70 pm but the sensor is shown to settle within ±5 pm after 3 thermal cycles and 10 tensile loading cycles. A low profile packaging design is presented for a maximum pressure of 20.68 MPa (3000 psi) for harsh environment applications. A detailed study with FEM analysis revealed the optimal design for the package’s sleeve thickness is 0.5 mm. The temperature sensitivity is in close agreement with the unpackaged coated sensor with 10% difference. Compared to the modelling, the equivalent force sensitivity is 27% lower due to prototype dimensional uncertainties and modelling uncertainties with the material properties. The lack of pre-tension of the FBG sensor in the package also attributed to lower force sensitivity at pressure level lower than 4.13 MPa (600 psi).

Fibre-optic sensing techniques for application in polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEMFC) are presented in this thesis. Temperature, relative humidity (RH) and air-water two-phase flow sensors are developed and demonstrated based on optical fibre Bragg gratings (FBG). Bragg gratings offer the following characteristics that warrant their development for application in PEMFCs: small size, environmental compatibility and the possibility of multiplexed multi-parameter sensing. Contributions of this work are in novel sensor development and implementation strategies. Important installation design considerations include the sensor proximity to the catalyst layer, sensor strain relief and minimal bending of the fibre. With these considerations, the dynamic and steady-state performance of FBG temperature sensors distributed throughout the flow-field of a single cell PEMFC was validated with a co-located micro-thermocouple. In the development of FBGs for in situ measurement of relative humidity, a polyimide-coated FBG based RH sensor is presented with significantly improved response time and sensitivity over previously reported designs. The RH inside a PEMFC under transient operating conditions is monitored. Step increases in current induce significantly larger increases in RH near the outlet than near the inlet of the cell, and associated transients within the fuel cell are found on a time scale approaching the sensor response time. Finally, to complete the suite of FBG sensors for water management in PEMFCs, an evanescent field based FBG sensor embedded in a microchannel for the measurement of two-phase flow dynamics is presented. Using high speed video for validation, it is established that the novel sensor enables the measurement of droplet average velocity and size in flow regimes representative of an operating fuel cell. / Graduate

Advanced composite materials are becoming increasingly more valuable in a plethora of engineering applications due to properties such as tailorability, low specific strength and stiffness and resistance to fatigue and corrosion. Compared to more traditional metallic and ceramic materials, advanced composites such as carbon, aramid or glass reinforced plastic are relatively new and still require research to optimize their capabilities. Three areas that composites stand to benefit from improvement are processing, damage detection and life prediction. Fiber optic sensors and piezoelectric transducers show great potential for advances in these areas. This dissertation presents the research performed on improving the efficiency of advanced composite materials through the use of embedded fiber optic sensors and surface mounted piezoelectric transducers. Embedded fiber optic sensors are used to detect the presence of resin during the injection stage of resin transfer molding, monitor the degree of cure and predict the remaining useful life while in service. A sophisticated resin transfer molding apparatus was developed with the ability of embedding fiber optics into the composite and a glass viewing window so that resin flow sensors could be verified visually. A novel technique for embedding optical fiber into both 2- and 3-D structures was developed. A theoretical model to predict the remaining useful life was developed and a systematic test program was conducted to verify this model. A network of piezoelectric transducers was bonded to a composite panel in order to develop a structural health monitoring algorithm capable of detecting and locating damage in a composite structure. A network configuration was introduced that allows for a modular expansion of the system to accommodate larger structures and an algorithm based on damage progression history was developed to implement the network. The details and results of this research are contained in four manuscripts that are included in Appendices A-D while the body of the dissertation provides background information and a summary of the results. / Graduate

Theoretical and experimental studies of real-time interrogation of fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors based on chirped pulse compression with increased interrogation resolution and signal-to-noise ratio are presented. Two interrogation systems are proposed in this thesis. In the first interrogation system, a linearly chirped FBG (LCFBG) is employed as the sensing element. By incorporating the LCFBG in an optical interferometer as the sensor encoding system, employing wavelength-to-time mapping and chirped pulse compression technique, the correlation of output microwave waveform with a chirped reference waveform would provide an interrogation result with high speed and high resolution. The proposed system can provide an interrogation resolution as high as 0.25 μ at a speed of 48.6 MHz. The second interrogation system is designed to achieve simultaneous measurement of strain and temperature. In this system, a high-birefringence LCFBG (Hi-Bi LCFBG) is employed as a sensing element.

The main purpose of the present work is to develop an innovative system for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) of aerospace composite structures based on dynamic strain measurements in order to identify in an exhaustive way the structural state condition. Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) optical sensors will be used for the recording of dynamic strain measurements from a composite structure. The methodology that will be developed for structural damage detection will use the collected dynamic response data and will analyze them through a statistical data-driven learning model, i.e. an artificial neural network, coupled with wavelet multi-resolution analysis. This methodology will be the core of the SHM system. Structural damage will be initially simulated by slightly varying the mass properties of the structure. As a second step, actual damage was introduced to the structure. The structural dynamic behavior has been numerically simulated and experimentally verified by means of vibration testing. The analysis of operational dynamic responses will be employed to identify both the damage and its position. / Αντικείμενο της διατριβής είναι η ανάπτυξη ενός συστήματος παρακολούθησης βλάβης για αεροδιαστημικές κατασκευές με αισθητήρες οπτικών ινών (Fiber Bragg Grating, FBG) με χρήση μετρήσεων δυναμικής απόκρισης και τεχνικών επεξεργασίας σήματος. Οι αισθητήρες οπτικών ινών FBG χρησιμοποιούνται ως αισθητήρες ανίχνευσης παραμόρφωσης, εκμεταλλευόμενοι την μεταβολή του μήκους κύματος του φωτός που διέρχεται από αυτούς κατά την διαστολή ή τη συστολή τους. Η απλή μονότροπη τηλεπικοινωνιακή οπτική ίνα εκτίθεται σε συγκλίνουσες δέσμες UV laser light. Οι δέσμες αυτές όταν διασταυρώνονται παρεμβάλλει η μια την άλλη, μεταβάλλουν μέρος της δομής της οπτικής ίνας και αλλάζουν περιοδικά τον δείκτη διάθλασης δημιουργώντας διαφορετικές περιοχές υψηλού και χαμηλού δείκτη διαθλάσεως στον πυρήνα της ίνας. Η τροποποιημένη ζώνη της ίνας λειτουργεί σαν οπτικό φίλτρο, αντανακλώντας μια ελάχιστη ποσότητα του ευρυζωνικού σήματος, επιτρέποντας παράλληλα στο υπόλοιπο φως να συνεχίσει την πορεία του μέσα στην ίνα. Αυτή η τροποποιημένη περιοχή είναι ευαίσθητη στην τάση εφελκυσμού και στις μεταβολές θερμοκρασίας. Πλεονεκτήματα των αισθητήρων FBG είναι τα ακόλουθα: Απρόσβλητοι στην ηλεκτρομαγνητική ακτινοβολία, απαιτούν μηδενική ενέργεια, προσφέρουν μακροχρόνια σταθερότητα, προσφέρουν ευκολία και χαμηλό κόστος εγκατάστασης, έχουν πολύ μικρές διαστάσεις, μεγάλη ακρίβεια και σχεδόν μηδενικό βάρος, μπορούν να σχηματίσουν συστοιχίες πολλαπλών οπτικών αισθητήρων σε μία μόνο οπτική ίνα (multiplexing) και μπορεί να γίνει ενσωμάτωσή τους σε σύνθετα υλικά. Οι αισθητήρες οπτικών ινών FBG μέχρι σήμερα χρησιμοποιούνται μόνο για στατικές μετρήσεις. Οι στόχοι της παρούσας διατριβής είναι οι ακόλουθοι: Χρήση αισθητήρων οπτικών ινών FBG για μετρήσεις δυναμικής απόκρισης με σκοπό την παρακολούθηση καλής λειτουργίας και την εύρεση βλάβης κατασκευών από σύνθετα υλικά. Εκτέλεση ειδικά επιλεγμένων μηχανικών δοκιμών σε τρία είδη κατασκευών, αεροναυπηγικών και αεροδιαστημικών, από lab-scale κατασκευή σε πραγματική αεροδιαστημική κατασκευή. Διερεύνηση της καταλληλότερης τοπολογίας αισθητήρων οπτικών ινών στη σύνθετη κατασκευή και διερεύνηση του καταλληλότερου τρόπου τοποθέτησής τους. Ανάπτυξη του συστήματος παρακολούθησης βλάβης των κατασκευών με βάση αρχικά προσομοιωμένη βλάβη (μεταβάλλοντας το μητρώο μάζας της κατασκευής) και στα τελευταία στάδια πειραμάτων, με βάση πραγματική βλάβη (ρωγμή) στις στρώσεις του σύνθετου υλικού. Ανάπτυξη και εφαρμογή καινοτόμων τεχνικών επεξεργασίας για τα σήματα παραμόρφωσης βασιζόμενες στο μετασχηματισμό κυματιδίων. Ανάπτυξη στατιστικών δεικτών ευαίσθητων στην παρουσία βλάβης από την επεξεργασία των σημάτων των αισθητήρων FBG. Εκπαίδευση και επαλήθευση τεχνητού νευρωνικού δικτύου με βάση επιλεγμένους δείκτες για εύρεση βλάβης (μέγεθος βλάβης και τοποθεσία). Διερεύνηση και ανάπτυξη μεθόδου διάγνωσης βλάβης βασισμένο σε πειραματική modal ανάλυση μέσω των σημάτων παραμόρφωσης από τους αισθητήρες οπτικών ινών Fiber Bragg Gratings. Πειραματική modal ανάλυση μέσω των σημάτων παραμόρφωσης και υπολογισμός των ιδιομορφών παραμόρφωσης της κατασκευής μέσω των FBG σημάτων.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Neste trabalho sÃo apresentados estudos de simulaÃÃo numÃrica de propagaÃÃo/chaveamento de pulsos ultracurtos em acopladores de cristais fotÃnicos e de Acesso MÃltiplo por DivisÃo de CÃdigo Ãptico (OCDMA) utilizando Fibras de Grade de Bragg (FBG). Para a codificaÃÃo foram obtidos analiticamente cÃdigos de Gold. Na anÃlise de acopladores de cristais fotÃnicos (microestruturados) foram investigadas as propriedades da propagaÃÃo de pulsos de luz na forma de sÃlitons. Foram utilizados pulsos ultracurtos, de duraÃÃo mÃnima de 100 femtossegundos (fs). Para este tipo de propagaÃÃo em acopladores deve ser resolvida numericamente a EquaÃÃo NÃo linear de SchrÃdinger Generalizada (ENLSG) dos modos acoplados com o acrÃscimo de termos de dispersÃo de terceira ordem, espalhamento Raman intrapulso, auto inclinaÃÃo e dispersÃo do coeficiente de acoplamento. Um acoplador com comprimento de acoplamento de 1,8 centÃmetros e comprimento de 33 centÃmetros foi simulado. Utilizando este comprimento de dispositivo os efeitos de alta ordem (dispersÃes, auto inclinaÃÃo, Raman, dispersÃo do acoplamento) foram fatores importantes a serem considerados. PorÃm, para dispositivos pequenos, com atà 2 comprimentos de acoplamento, estes efeitos podem ser desconsiderados. Na segunda anÃlise, foi estudada a codificaÃÃo em amplitude de 5 cÃdigos de Gold utilizando uma FBG codificadora/decodificadora de comprimento 41,58 milÃmetros. Para a grade utilizada, a codificaÃÃo em amplitude e a interferÃncia entre usuÃrios neste dispositivo foram investigadas. Houve um aumento da interferÃncia ao se acrescentar usuÃrios partindo de valores de 6 decibÃis atà cerca de 10,5 decibÃis para este dispositivo. Utilizando acopladores fotÃnicos com a FBG linear, o chaveamento de pulsos entre os canais do acoplador pÃde ser visualizado para ganhos altos (a partir de 50 decibÃis). / This paper presents numerical simulation studies of propagation/switching of ultra-short pulses in photonic crystal couplers and Optical Code Division Multiple Access (OCDMA) using Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG). For coding were obtained analytically Gold codes. In the analysis of photonic crystal couplers (microstructured) investigated the properties of the propagation of light pulses as SÃlitons. Ultra-short pulses of minimum duration of 100 femtoseconds (fs) were used. For this type of propagation in couplers, must be solved numerically the Equation nonlinear SchrÃdinger Generalized (ENLSG) of the coupled modes in accordance with the addition of third order dispersion, intrapulse Raman scattering, self-steepening and the dispersion of coupling coefficient. A coupler with coupling length of 1.8 cm and length 33 cm was simulated. Using this device length, the high-order effects (dispersion, self-steepening, raman, dispersion of the coupling) were important factors to consider. But, for small devices, with up to two coupling lengths, these effects may be ignored. In the second analysis, we studied the coding range of 5 Gold codes using an FBG encoder/decoder of length 41.58 mm. For the grid used, the encoding amplitude and interference between users of this device have been investigated. There was an increase of interference by adding values of users starting from 6 dB to about 10.5 dB for this device. Using photonic couplers with the FBG linear switching pulses between the channels of the coupler could be visualized to high gains (from 50 decibels).