Este trabalho apresenta resultados de processos pré-tratamento da fibra ótica e/ou pós-tratamento das redes de Bragg, com o objetivo de estabilizar e garantir a operação dessas redes por períodos longos, em temperaturas da ordem de 300°C a 800°C. Resultados do crescimento das redes em fibra ótica padrão G-652 com diâmetro nominal e em tapers, além de fibras óticas pré-aquecidas em chama butano-propano, mostraram aumento da eficiência da gravação pela redução do diâmetro ou aquecimento prévio da fibra. Redes fortes, supostamente de tipo IIA, produzidas em fibra G-652 não hidrogenada, apresentaram estimativas de sobrevida de 17000 horas operando a 400 °C e de 3000 horas operando em 600°C. As redes regeneradas produzidas em fibra G-652 hidrogenada e em fibras fotossensíveis mostraram eficiência de regeneração proporcional ao comprimento e ao nível de saturação da rede semente. Redes regeneradas apresentaram estimativa de sobrevida de aproximadamente 5600 horas a 600 °C e não houve sobrevida por longos períodos de tempo operando em temperaturas iguais ou superiores à da regeneração. São mostrados ciclos de tratamento térmico pra a estabilização das redes IIA. Resultados para sensibilidade térmica das redes mostraram não haver histerese em ciclo aquecimento-resfriamento. Uma solução para encapsulamento da rede através do uso de tubo cerâmico de alumina mostrou-se satisfatória nas regiões de temperatura mencionadas, sem redução no desempenho. / This work presents results regarding pré-treatment optical fibers and / or post-treatment of Bragg gratings in order to stabilize and ensure the operational of such gratings for long periods at temperatures form 300 °C to 800 °C. Results of the growth of fiber optic gratings in standard G-652 with nominal diameter and in fiber tapers, as well as gratings recorded in optical fibers preheated by propane-butane flame, showed increased efficiency in the recording, related to the shrinking of the fiber diameter or to the pre-heating. Strong gratings, presumably of type IIA produced in non-hydrogenated G-652 fibers, showed expected survival time of approximately 17000 hours operating at 400 ºC and 3000 hours operating at 600 °C. The regenerated Bragg gratings produced on G-652 hydrogenated fiber and on photosensitive fibers showed regeneration efficiency proportional to the length and saturation of the seed grating. Regenerated Bragg gratings presented expected survival time of about 5600 hours at 600 °C and no survival for long duration intervals when operating at temperatures equal or above the regeneration temperature. Heat treatment cycles to stabilize IIA gratings are described. Results for thermal sensitivity of the Bragg gratings showed no hysteresis in heating-cooling cycle. A solution for encapsulation of the Bragg gratings through the use of alumina ceramic tube was satisfactory tested in the regions mentioned temperature, showing no degradation in performance.

Este trabalho descreve a produção de redes de Bragg e de período longo em fibras óticas, e a caracterização destas redes como dispositivos sensores na detecção de hidrocarbonetos que fluem em polidutos, bem como na monitoração de sua temperatura. O trabalho foi realizado no Laboratório de Laser da UTFPR. As redes de período longo foram produzidas pela aplicação ponto-a-ponto do arco elétrico de uma máquina de emendas de fibras óticas e caracterizadas como sensores de índices de refração de meios exteriores à fibra. Essa caracterização foi realizada usando diferentes amostras de fluidos tais como, álcool, gasolina, aguarrás, tíner, querosene e nafta. O maior deslocamento em comprimento de onda apresentado pela rede foi de 15,57 nm na presença do querosene. A sensibilidade média ao índice de refração da rede foi 2,6x10-6 pm-1 para a região compreendida entre 1,432 (tíner) e 1,448 (querosene). Esta sensibilidade resulta em uma mínima variação de índice de refração de 2,6x10-5 que pode ser medida por um analisador de espectros óticos com precisão em comprimento de onda de ± 5pm. O tempo de resposta do sensor foi da ordem de 3 segundos. As redes de Bragg foram caracterizadas como dispositivo sensor de temperatura dos fluidos. As redes de Bragg foram produzidas inicialmente em fibras SMF hidrogenadas e posteriormente em fibras fotossensíveis, utilizando a técnica de escrita interferométrica com máscara de fase e laser ultravioleta. Os dispositivos foram caracterizados como sensor de temperatura, tendo sido feito um estudo para estabilização térmica dos mesmos. A sensibilidade das redes variou desde 10,2 nm/ºC até 11,4 nm/ºC. A precisão deste tipo de sensor está intimamente relacionada com a largura de banda espectral da rede, portanto, um sistema de gravação utilizando a técnica de escrita com máscara de fase e laser UV foi implementado, tornando possível a escrita de redes mais longas com menor largura de banda. / This work describes the production of fiber Bragg gratings and long period gratings in optical fibers and their characterization as sensors devices in the detection of hydrocarbons that flow in pipelines, as well as its temperature measurement. The work was accomplished at Laser Laboratory of UTFPR. The long period gratings were produced using the point-to-point electric arc discharge technique from a splice machine and characterized as refractive index sensors of the fiber surroundings. The characterization was accomplished using different samples of alcohol, gasoline, turpentine, thinner, kerosene and naphtha. The biggest wavelength shift presented by the grating was 15.57 nm in the presence of the kerosene. The average refractive index grating sensitivity was 2.6x10-6 pm-1 in the range from 1.432 (thinner) to 1.448 (kerosene). This sensitivity relates to a smallest refractive index variation of 2.6x10-5 that can be measured, for an optical spectrum analizer with wavelength precision of ± 5 pm. The response time of the sensor was 3 seconds for the different samples used. The fiber Bragg gratings were characterized as temperature sensor devices of the samples. The gratings were produced both in SMF hydrogenated and photosensitive fibers, using an ultraviolet laser and a phase mask interferometer. The devices were characterized as temperature sensors, and a study for thermal stabilization of them was carried out. The obtained sensor sensitivity ranged from 10.2 nm/ºC up to 11.4 nm/ºC. As the precision of this type of sensor is related to the bandwidth of the fiber Bragg grating, a writing system technique based on a phase mask and an UV laser was implemented, making possible the writing of long and narrow bandwidth gratings.

Este trabalho apresenta resultados de processos pré-tratamento da fibra ótica e/ou pós-tratamento das redes de Bragg, com o objetivo de estabilizar e garantir a operação dessas redes por períodos longos, em temperaturas da ordem de 300°C a 800°C. Resultados do crescimento das redes em fibra ótica padrão G-652 com diâmetro nominal e em tapers, além de fibras óticas pré-aquecidas em chama butano-propano, mostraram aumento da eficiência da gravação pela redução do diâmetro ou aquecimento prévio da fibra. Redes fortes, supostamente de tipo IIA, produzidas em fibra G-652 não hidrogenada, apresentaram estimativas de sobrevida de 17000 horas operando a 400 °C e de 3000 horas operando em 600°C. As redes regeneradas produzidas em fibra G-652 hidrogenada e em fibras fotossensíveis mostraram eficiência de regeneração proporcional ao comprimento e ao nível de saturação da rede semente. Redes regeneradas apresentaram estimativa de sobrevida de aproximadamente 5600 horas a 600 °C e não houve sobrevida por longos períodos de tempo operando em temperaturas iguais ou superiores à da regeneração. São mostrados ciclos de tratamento térmico pra a estabilização das redes IIA. Resultados para sensibilidade térmica das redes mostraram não haver histerese em ciclo aquecimento-resfriamento. Uma solução para encapsulamento da rede através do uso de tubo cerâmico de alumina mostrou-se satisfatória nas regiões de temperatura mencionadas, sem redução no desempenho. / This work presents results regarding pré-treatment optical fibers and / or post-treatment of Bragg gratings in order to stabilize and ensure the operational of such gratings for long periods at temperatures form 300 °C to 800 °C. Results of the growth of fiber optic gratings in standard G-652 with nominal diameter and in fiber tapers, as well as gratings recorded in optical fibers preheated by propane-butane flame, showed increased efficiency in the recording, related to the shrinking of the fiber diameter or to the pre-heating. Strong gratings, presumably of type IIA produced in non-hydrogenated G-652 fibers, showed expected survival time of approximately 17000 hours operating at 400 ºC and 3000 hours operating at 600 °C. The regenerated Bragg gratings produced on G-652 hydrogenated fiber and on photosensitive fibers showed regeneration efficiency proportional to the length and saturation of the seed grating. Regenerated Bragg gratings presented expected survival time of about 5600 hours at 600 °C and no survival for long duration intervals when operating at temperatures equal or above the regeneration temperature. Heat treatment cycles to stabilize IIA gratings are described. Results for thermal sensitivity of the Bragg gratings showed no hysteresis in heating-cooling cycle. A solution for encapsulation of the Bragg gratings through the use of alumina ceramic tube was satisfactory tested in the regions mentioned temperature, showing no degradation in performance.

Este trabalho descreve a produção de redes de Bragg e de período longo em fibras óticas, e a caracterização destas redes como dispositivos sensores na detecção de hidrocarbonetos que fluem em polidutos, bem como na monitoração de sua temperatura. O trabalho foi realizado no Laboratório de Laser da UTFPR. As redes de período longo foram produzidas pela aplicação ponto-a-ponto do arco elétrico de uma máquina de emendas de fibras óticas e caracterizadas como sensores de índices de refração de meios exteriores à fibra. Essa caracterização foi realizada usando diferentes amostras de fluidos tais como, álcool, gasolina, aguarrás, tíner, querosene e nafta. O maior deslocamento em comprimento de onda apresentado pela rede foi de 15,57 nm na presença do querosene. A sensibilidade média ao índice de refração da rede foi 2,6x10-6 pm-1 para a região compreendida entre 1,432 (tíner) e 1,448 (querosene). Esta sensibilidade resulta em uma mínima variação de índice de refração de 2,6x10-5 que pode ser medida por um analisador de espectros óticos com precisão em comprimento de onda de ± 5pm. O tempo de resposta do sensor foi da ordem de 3 segundos. As redes de Bragg foram caracterizadas como dispositivo sensor de temperatura dos fluidos. As redes de Bragg foram produzidas inicialmente em fibras SMF hidrogenadas e posteriormente em fibras fotossensíveis, utilizando a técnica de escrita interferométrica com máscara de fase e laser ultravioleta. Os dispositivos foram caracterizados como sensor de temperatura, tendo sido feito um estudo para estabilização térmica dos mesmos. A sensibilidade das redes variou desde 10,2 nm/ºC até 11,4 nm/ºC. A precisão deste tipo de sensor está intimamente relacionada com a largura de banda espectral da rede, portanto, um sistema de gravação utilizando a técnica de escrita com máscara de fase e laser UV foi implementado, tornando possível a escrita de redes mais longas com menor largura de banda. / This work describes the production of fiber Bragg gratings and long period gratings in optical fibers and their characterization as sensors devices in the detection of hydrocarbons that flow in pipelines, as well as its temperature measurement. The work was accomplished at Laser Laboratory of UTFPR. The long period gratings were produced using the point-to-point electric arc discharge technique from a splice machine and characterized as refractive index sensors of the fiber surroundings. The characterization was accomplished using different samples of alcohol, gasoline, turpentine, thinner, kerosene and naphtha. The biggest wavelength shift presented by the grating was 15.57 nm in the presence of the kerosene. The average refractive index grating sensitivity was 2.6x10-6 pm-1 in the range from 1.432 (thinner) to 1.448 (kerosene). This sensitivity relates to a smallest refractive index variation of 2.6x10-5 that can be measured, for an optical spectrum analizer with wavelength precision of ± 5 pm. The response time of the sensor was 3 seconds for the different samples used. The fiber Bragg gratings were characterized as temperature sensor devices of the samples. The gratings were produced both in SMF hydrogenated and photosensitive fibers, using an ultraviolet laser and a phase mask interferometer. The devices were characterized as temperature sensors, and a study for thermal stabilization of them was carried out. The obtained sensor sensitivity ranged from 10.2 nm/ºC up to 11.4 nm/ºC. As the precision of this type of sensor is related to the bandwidth of the fiber Bragg grating, a writing system technique based on a phase mask and an UV laser was implemented, making possible the writing of long and narrow bandwidth gratings.

Ao longo dos últimos anos, redes de Bragg em fibras ópticas (FBG, do inglês Fiber Bragg Gratings) vêm sendo frequentemente utilizadas como sensores de deformação e de temperatura. O problema da indistinguibilidade entre esses dois parâmetros físicos, presente durante medidas realizadas por esse tipo de sensor, tem sido bem resolvido com o uso de duas FBGs com comprimentos de onda distintos. Muito embora esse artifício tenha apresentado bons resultados, ele também oferece algumas desvantagens, sendo uma delas a necessidade de duas fontes de luz para diferentes comprimentos de onda. Em virtude disto, este trabalho apresenta um sistema capaz de realizar medidas de temperatura e deformação, simultaneamente, utilizando apenas uma fonte de luz. O método baseia-se na inscrição de duas redes de Bragg com comprimentos de onda próximos (no caso, 810 e 860 nm) na mesma posição da fibra óptica. Apesar de a separação entre os comprimentos de onda das FBGs ser aparentemente pequena (cerca de 50 nm), o sistema respondeu precisamente a variações de deformação e temperatura. Dessa forma, a utilização de apenas uma fonte de luz no sistema é corretamente justificada, uma vez que, com essa alteração, o custo do sistema é substancialmente reduzido. Ademais, o uso de comprimentos de onda em torno de 800 nm também barateia o sistema, pois os CCDs usados neste intervalo espectral são menos onerosos do que aqueles tradicionalmente usados em comprimentos de onda de comunicações ópticas (1,55 μm). / In recent years, fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) have been frequently used as strain and temperature sensors. Several studies have tackled the problem of distinguishing between these two physical parameters using a dual-wavelength sensor. Although these sensors have shown good results, they have a few drawbacks, one of them being the need for two light sources with different wavelengths. We present an approach for simultaneous strain and temperature sensing which uses only one light source. The method relies on writing FBGs with nearby wavelengths (for instance, at 810 and 860 nm) at the same section of the fiber. Even though the Bragg wavelengths are separated by just a few nanometers (about 50 nm), it is possible to accurately measure variations in strain and temperature. One of the major advantages of this approach is the use of a unique light source, what reduces substantially the system cost. Another advantage is the lower cost of array detectors at 800 nm when compared to those of telecom wavelengths (1,55 μm).

A novel detection technique to estimate the amount of chirp in fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) is proposed. This method is based on the fact that reflectivity at central wavelength of FBG reflection changes with strain/temperature gradient (linear chirp) applied to the same. Transfer matrix approach was used to vary different grating parameters (length, strength and apodization) to optimize variation of reflectivity with linear chirp. Analysis is done for different sets of ‘FBG length-refractive index strength’ combinations for which reflectivity vary linearly with linear chirp over a decent measurement range. This work acts as a guideline to choose appropriate grating parameters in designing sensing apparatus based on change in reflectivity at central wavelength of FBG reflection. A novel high sensitive FBG strain sensing technique using lasers locked to relative frequency reference is proposed and analyzed theoretically. Static strain on FBG independent of temperature can be measured by locking frequency of diode laser to the mid reflection frequency of matched reference FBG, which responds to temperature similar to that of the sensor FBG, but is immune to strain applied to the same. Difference between light intensities reflected from the sensor and reference FBGs (proportional to the difference between respective pass band gains at the diode laser frequency) is not only proportional to the relative strain between the sensor and reference FBGs but also independent of servo residual frequency errors. Usage of relative frequency reference avoids all complexities involved in the usage of absolute frequency reference, hence, making the system simple and economical. Theoretical limit for dynamic and static strain sensitivities considering all major noise contributions are respectively of the order of 25 pε/ Hz and 1.2nε /

In this thesis, a method to improve survivability is developed for fiber Bragg gratings under high velocity impact in dynamic body armor shape sensing applications by encasing the fiber in silicone. Utilizing the slipping of the fiber within the silicone channel, a proportionality relationship between the strain of the fiber to the acceleration of the impacting projectile is found and is used to obtain the rate of the back-face deformation. A hybrid model is developed to handle errors caused by the stick-slip of the fiber by fitting an inverse exponential to stuck sections found in a captured strain profile and double integrated to transform the stuck section to its equivalent slipping. Displacement errors below 10% was achieved using the hybrid model. A graphical user interface with a step-by-step walkthrough and a fiber Bragg grating interrogation system was designed for test engineers to utilize this technology. Test engineers from the Army Test Center in Aberdeen, MD were trained on this technology and successfully captured and processed shots using this technology. A method for cutting Silicon through wire-EDM machining is developed by utilizing the photoconductive properties of Silicon. Cut rates for unilluminated and illuminated Silicon was compared and a 3x faster cut was achieved on the illuminated cuts.

The main objective of this thesis is to explore the use of volume holographic elements recorded in photo-thermo-refractive (PTR) glass for power scaling of narrow linewidth diffraction-limited fiber lasers to harness high average power and high brightness beams. Single fiber lasers enable kW level output powers limited by optical damage, thermal effects and non-linear effects. Output powers can be further scaled using large mode area fibers, however, at the cost of beam quality and instabilities due to the presence of higher order modes. The mechanisms limiting the performance of narrow-linewidth large mode area fiber lasers are investigated and solutions using intra-cavity volume Bragg gratings (VBG) proposed. Selfpulsations-free, completely continuous-wave operation of a VBG-stabilized unidirectional fiber ring laser is demonstrated with quasi single-frequency ( < 7.5 MHz) output. A method for transverse mode selection in multimode fiber lasers to reduce higher order mode content and stabilize the output beam profile is developed using angular selectivity of reflecting VBGs. By placing the VBG output coupler in a convergent beam, stabilization of the far-field beam profile of a 20 μm core large mode area fiber laser is demonstrated. Beam combining techniques are essential to power scale beyond the limitations of single laser sources. Several beam combining techniques relevant to fiber lasers were compared in this study and found to be lacking in one or more of the following aspects: the coherence of the individual sources is compromised, the far-field beam quality is highly degraded with significant power in iv side lobes, spectrally broad and unstable, and uncertainty over scaling to larger arrays and higher power. Keeping in mind the key requirements of coherence, good far-field beam quality, narrow and stable spectra, and scalability in both array size and power, a new passive coherent beam combining technique using multiplexed volume Bragg gratings (M-VBGs) is proposed. In order to understand the mechanism of radiation exchange between multiple beams via these complex holographic optical elements, the spectral and beam splitting properties a 2nd order reflecting M-VBG recorded in PTR glass is experimentally investigated using a tunable single frequency seed laser. Two single-mode Yb-doped fiber lasers are then coherently combined using reflecting M-VBGs in both linear and unidirectional-ring resonators with > 90% combining efficiency and diffraction-limited beam quality. It is demonstrated that the combining bandwidth can be controlled in the range of 100s of pm to a few pm by angular detuning of the M-VBG. Very narrow-linewidth ( < 210 MHz) operation in a linear cavity and possibility of singlefrequency operation in a unidirectional ring cavity of the coherently combined system is demonstrated using this technique. It is theoretically derived and experimentally demonstrated that high combining efficiency can be achieved even by multiplexing low-efficiency VBGs, with the required diffraction efficiency of individual VBGs decreasing as array size increases. Scaling of passive coherent beam combining to four fiber lasers is demonstrated using a 4th order transmitting M-VBG. Power scaling of this technique to 10 W level combined powers with 88% combining efficiency is demonstrated by passively combining two large mode area fiber lasers using a 2nd order reflecting M-VBG in a unidirectional ring resonator. High energy compact single-frequency sources are highly desired for several applications – one of which is as a seed for high power fiber amplifiers. Towards achieving the goal of a monolithic solid-state laser, a new gain medium having both photosensitive and luminescence properties is investigated – rare-earth doped PTR glass. First lasing is demonstrated in this new gain element in a VBG-stabilized external cavity.

Chirped Bragg gratings (CBGs) recorded in photo-thermo-refractive (PTR) glass provide a very efficient and robust way to stretch and compress ultra-short laser pulses. These gratings offer the ability to stretch pulses from hundreds of femtoseconds, to the order of 1 ns and then recompress them. However, in order to achieve pulse stretching of this magnitude, 100 mm thick CBGs are needed. Using these CBGs to both stretch, and re-compress the pulse thus requires propagation through 200 mm of optical glass. This therefore demands perfect control of the glass homogeneity, as well as the holographic recording process of the CBG. In this thesis, we present a study of the CBG parameters that lead to distortions in the quality of diffracted beams. We first present the challenges associated with measuring the quality of these beams and we show that such measurements are not easily achieved using commercial systems that rely on the ISO standard M2 method. Thus, we introduce a new metric of beam quality, which we have coined S2 , that is a combination of both the M2 and power in the bucket metrics. Subsequently, we investigate the influence of the CBG parameters on the quality of diffracted beams. In particular, we examine the impact of small optical heterogeneities known as striae, as well as the impact of the optically and thermally induced distortions in the grating. We then use this data to improve the fabrication and characterization of 100 mm long CBGs. Finally, we characterize the performance of CBGs recorded in PTR for stretching and compression of femtosecond pulses using a custom autocorrelation system. We present data on high quality 100 mm long CBGs and an analysis on the correlation between beam quality and the final pulse duration after stretching and re-compressing the pulse.

Optical filters encompass a vast array of devices and structures for a wide variety of applications. Generally speaking, an optical filter is some structure that applies a designed amplitude and phase transform to an incident signal. Different classes of filters have vastly divergent characteristics, and one of the challenges in the optical design process is identifying the ideal filter for a given application and optimizing it to obtain a specific response. In particular, it is highly advantageous to obtain a filter that can be seamlessly integrated into an overall device package without requiring exotic fabrication steps, extremely sensitive alignments, or complicated conversions between optical and electrical signals. This dissertation explores three classes of nano-scale optical filters in an effort to obtain different types of dispersive response functions. First, dispersive waveguides are designed using a sub-wavelength periodic structure to transmit a single TE propagating mode with very high second order dispersion. Next, an innovative approach for decoupling waveguide trajectories from Bragg gratings is outlined and used to obtain a uniform second-order dispersion response while minimizing fabrication limitations. Finally, high Q-factor microcavities are coupled into axisymmetric pillar structures that offer extremely high group delay over very narrow transmission bandwidths. While these three novel filters are quite diverse in their operation and target applications, they offer extremely compact structures given the magnitude of the dispersion or group delay they introduce to an incident signal. They are also designed and structured as to be formed on an optical wafer scale using standard integrated circuit fabrication techniques. A number of frequency-domain numerical simulation methods are developed to fully characterize and model each of the different filters. The complete filter response, which includes the dispersion and delay characteristics and optical coupling, is used to evaluate each filter design concept. However, due to the complex nature of the structure geometries and electromagnetic interactions, an iterative optimization approach is required to improve the structure designs and obtain a suitable response. To this end, a Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm is developed and applied to the simulated filter responses to generate optimal filter designs.