The aim of this research was to demonstrate the potential of the novel pre-concentration device, capillary microextraction of volatiles (CMV), for breath analysis. The CMV offers dynamic sampling of volatile organic compounds with its simple coupling to a GC inlet for GC/MS analysis, avoiding expensive thermal desorption instrumentation needed for sorbent tubes, as well as an increased surface area over a single SPME fiber. CMV collectively identified 119 compounds in the breath of 13 self-reported smokers and 7 nonsmokers. The presence and intensity of twelve compounds were used to classify all the nonsmokers 100% of the time using Principal Component Analysis to elucidate the groupings. In some cases, nicotine was not detected in smokers and they were confused with the nonsmokers. Nicotine was detected in the breath of 69% of smokers with an average mass of 143 ± 31 pg for cigarette smokers from the approximate 5 L sample of breath collected. The successful use of the CMV sampler and preconcentration of breath to distinguish between smokers and nonsmokers served as a proof of concept for future applications of the CMV for detection of marijuana smokers’ breath for impaired driver management.

6 Abstract This thesis focuses on the identification and quantification of volatile metabolites in the exhaled breath that might be used as possible biomarkers of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease. Animal tissue samples were exposed to conditions simulating the gastric environment to identify specific volatile compounds that would be chosen for real-time quantification in exhaled breath of GERD patients and healthy controls using selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry. Solid phase microextraction, was used in combination with gas chromatography mass spectrometry, for qualitative analyses of the headspace of these samples. Only acetic acid was significantly elevated and so it has been elected for the quantitative analysis in the breath of the patients. The median concentration of acetic acid measured by SIFT-MS in the exhaled breath of twenty-two GERD patients was found to be higher (85 ppbv) in comparison to the control group (31 ppbv). The results show that breath acetic acid could be valuable marker for GERD diagnosis and monitoring.

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Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology allows the realization of mechanical parts, sensors, actuators and electronics on silicon substrate. An attractive utilization of MEMS is to develop micro instruments for chemical analysis. An example is gas chromatography (GC) which is widely used in food, environmental, pharmaceutical, petroleum/refining, forensic/security, and flavors and fragrances industries. A MEMS-based micro GC (µGC) provides capabilities for quantitative analysis of complex chemical mixtures in the field with very short analysis time and small amounts of consumables. The aim of this research effort is to enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of µGC instruments by implementing chemical amplification method known as preconcentration. A micro preconcentrator (µPC) extracts the target analytes from the sample matrix, concentrates them, and injects them into the separation column for analysis. This work resulted in the development of silicon-glass bonded chips consisting of 7 mm x 7 mm x 0.38 mm multiport cavity with thousands of embedded 3D microstructures (to achieve high surface-to-volume ratio) coated with polymeric thin film adsorbents. Deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) was the enabling technology for the realization of µPCs. Several coating methods, such as inkjet printing of polymers and polymer precipitation from solution have been utilized to coat complex geometrical structures. One major outcome was the development of cobweb adsorbent structure. Moreover, the porous polymeric adsorbent Tenax TA in the film form was characterized, for the first time, for μPC application and shown to have similar properties to that of the granular form. Several μPC designs were experimentally evaluated for their performance in concentrating volatile organic compounds, including cancer biomarkers, Propofol (anesthetic agent), environmental pollutants, and chemical warfare simulants. The possibility of utilizing the μPCs in practical applications such breath analysis was also demonstrated. / Ph. D.

Measuring lipid oxidation is useful as a means of monitoring oxidative stress, such as that induced by clinical conditions or environmental exposure. Characteristic volatile compounds, often with low threshold odors, are secondary products of lipid oxidation reactions. Metallic flavor in food and beverages has been linked with oxidation of lipids in the oral cavity. Breath, an emerging medium for analysis of internal condition, is one means of measuring the metal-induced lipid oxidation responsible for this flavor. This project analyzes the breath of human subjects, as well as lipid oxidation of in vitro samples to identify compounds responsible for producing metallic flavor, which result from the oxidation of lipids in the oral cavity. Because these analytes are found at extremely low (picomolar to nanomolar) concentrations, preconcentration of samples prior to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis is crucial. This study utilizes both solid phase microextraction (SPME) and micromachined silicon micropreconcentrators to concentrate compounds in breath to optimize analysis. / Master of Science

Propõe-se método novo e completo para análise de acetona em ar exalado envolvendo coleta com pré-concentração em água, derivatização química e determinação eletroquímica assistida por novo algoritmo de processamento de sinais. Na literatura recente a acetona expirada vem sendo avaliada como biomarcador para monitoramento não invasivo de quadros clínicos como diabetes e insuficiência cardíaca, daí a importância da proposta. Entre as aminas que reagem com acetona para formar iminas eletroativas, estudadas por polarografia em meados do século passado, a glicina apresentou melhor conjunto de características para a definição do método de determinação por voltametria de onda quadrada sem a necessidade de remoção de oxigênio (25 Hz, amplitude de 20 mV, incremento de 5 mV, eletrodo de gota de mercúrio). O meio reacional, composto de glicina (2 mol·L-1) em meio NaOH (1 mol·L-1), serviu também de eletrólito e o pico de redução da imina em -1,57 V vs. Ag|AgCl constituiu o sinal analítico. Para tratamento dos sinais, foi desenvolvido e avaliado um algoritmo inovador baseado em interpolação de linha base por ajuste de curvas de Bézier e ajuste de gaussiana ao pico. Essa combinação permitiu reconhecimento e quantificação de picos relativamente baixos e largos sobre linha com curvatura acentuada e ruído, situação em que métodos convencionais falham e curvas do tipo spline se mostraram menos apropriadas. A implementação do algoritmo (disponível em http://github.com/batistagl/chemapps) foi realizada utilizando programa open source de álgebra matricial integrado diretamente com software de controle do potenciostato. Para demonstrar a generalidade da extensão dos recursos nativos do equipamento mediante integração com programação externa em linguagem Octave (open source), implementou-se a técnica da cronocoulometria tridimensional, com visualização de resultados já tratados em projeções de malha de perspectiva 3D sob qualquer ângulo. A determinação eletroquímica de acetona em fase aquosa, assistida pelo algoritmo baseado em curvas de Bézier, é rápida e automática, tem limite de detecção de 3,5·10-6 mol·L-1 (0,2 mg·L-1) e faixa linear que atende aos requisitos da análise em ar exalado. O acetaldeído, comumente presente em ar exalado, em especial, após consumo de bebidas alcoólicas, dá origem a pico voltamétrico em -1,40 V, contornando interferência que prejudica vários outros métodos publicados na literatura e abrindo possibilidade de determinação simultânea. Resultados obtidos com amostras reais são concordantes com os obtidos por método espectrofotométrico, em uso rotineiro desde o seu aperfeiçoamento na dissertação de mestrado do autor desta tese. Em relação à dissertação, também se otimizou a geometria do dispositivo de coleta, de modo a concentrar a acetona num volume menor de água gelada e prover maior conforto ao paciente. O método completo apresentado, englobando o dispositivo de amostragem aperfeiçoado e o novo e efetivo algoritmo para tratamento automático de sinais voltamétricos, está pronto para ser aplicado. Evolução para um analisador portátil depende de melhorias no limite de detecção e facilidade de obtenção eletrodos sólidos (impressos) com filme de mercúrio, vez que eletrodos de bismuto ou diamante dopado com boro, entre outros, não apresentaram resposta. / A new and complete method for analyzing acetone in exhaled breath is proposed, involving sample collection by preconcentration in water, chemical derivatization and electrochemical determination assisted by a new signal processing algorithm. Breath acetone is under investigation in the medical literature as a biomarker for noninvasive monitoring of clinical conditions such as diabetes and heart failure and better analyzers are demanded. Some amines that react with acetone to form electroactive imines, already studied by polarography in the middle of the last century, were evaluated here as derivatizing agents and glycine presented the best compromise for the definition of a determination method by square wave voltammetry without purging of dissolved oxygen (20 mV pulses at 25 Hz with 5 mV scanning steps, mercury drop electrode). The derivatization medium of glycine (2 mol·L-1) and NaOH (1 mol·L-1) also serves as electrolyte and the imine reduction peak at -1.57 V vs. Ag|AgCl constitutes the analytical signal. For signal processing a novel algorithm based on baseline automatic prediction using Bézier curves was developed in combination with Gaussian peak fitting. This innovative combination enables the recognition and quantification of relatively low and broad peaks on a curved and noisy baseline while standard procedures fail and fitting of splines is less appropriate. The algorithm (available at http://github.com/batistagl/chemapps) was implemented using open source matrix algebra software directly integrated with the potentiostat control software. The generality of this approach to extend the native resources of commercial equipment was evidenced by proceeding the implementation of 3D chronocoulometry with help of the open source Octave language. The processed charge vs. potential vs. time function 3-D surfaces for the forward and backward steps can be observed from any angle on the screen. The fast automatic electrochemical determination of acetone assisted by the Bézier based curve fitting algorithm, with an acetone detection limit of 3.5·10-6 mol·L-1 (0.2 mg·L-1) and a wide linear range is entirely satisfactory for breath analysis. Acetaldehyde, an expected component of breath, especially after ingestion of alcohol, and a common interferent for some other analytical methods, generates a peak at -1.40 V that does not interfere with the acetone determination and that is possibly suitable for simultaneous determination of this analyte. Results obtained with real samples are in agreement with spectrophotometric determinations routinely applied to breath analysis, formerly developed in the master dissertation of the author of this thesis. The geometry of the impinger sampling device was also improved (in comparison with the dissertation) in order to collect the acetone in a smaller volume of cooled water and to allow the patient to breath more freely. The complete method at its current state of development, encompassing the improved sampler and the new effective signal processing algorithm for voltammetric signals is ready for use. Evolution to a portable analyzer can be envisioned if the shortcomings of detection limits of solid (screen-printed) electrode preparation with a mercury film are overcome, once the imine signal was not observed on solid electrodes like bismuth and boron doped diamond.