This research investigates two principal characteristics that are of primary importance in Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) bridge deck applications: STIFFNESS and STRENGTH. The research was undertaken by investigating the stiffness and strength characteristics of the multi-cellular FRP bridge deck systems consisting of pultruded FRP shapes. A systematic analysis procedure was developed for the stiffness analysis of multi-cellular FRP deck systems. This procedure uses the Method of Elastic Equivalence to model the cellular deck as an equivalent orthotropic plate. The procedure provides a practical method to predict the equivalent orthotropic plate properties of cellular FRP decks. Analytical solutions for the bending analysis of single span decks were developed using classical laminated plate theory. The analysis procedures can be extended to analyze continuous FRP decks. It can also be further developed using higher order plate theories. Several failure modes of the cellular FRP deck systems were recorded and analyzed through laboratory and field tests and Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Two schemes of loading patches were used in the laboratory test: a steel patch made according to the ASSHTO's bridge testing specifications; and a tire patch made from a real truck tire reinforced with silicon rubber. The tire patch was specially designed to simulate service loading conditions by modifying real contact loading from a tire. Our research shows that the effects of the stiffness and contact conditions of loading patches are significant in the stiffness and strength testing of FRP decks. Due to the localization of load, a simulated tire patch yields larger deflection than the steel patch under the same loading level. The tire patch produces significantly different failure compared to the steel patch: a local bending mode with less damage for the tire patch; and a local punching-shear mode for the steel patch. A deck failure function method is proposed for predicting the failure of FRP decks. Using developed laminated composite theories and FEA techniques, a strength analysis procedure containing ply-level information was proposed and detailed for FRP deck systems. The behavior of the deck's unsupported (free) edges was also investigated using ply-level FEA. / Ph. D.

Many problems are involved with inspecting and evaluating the condition of bridges in the United States. Concrete bridge deck inspection and evaluation presents one of the largest problems. The deterioration of these concrete decks progresses more rapidly than any other bridge component, which leads to early concrete deck replacements that must be done before the bridge superstructure needs to be replaced. The primary cause of deterioration in these concrete bridge decks is corrosion-induced concrete cracking, which frequently results in delaminations. Delamination distress increases the life cycle cost of maintaining a concrete bridge deck, particularly when it is not detected early on. Early detection of delamination distress can facilitate economical repair and rehabilitation work, but bridge engineers must recommend deck replacement if repairs are delayed too long or inspection tools cannot detect delaminations early enough. The Federal Highway Administration has responded to the need for a better bridge deck inspection tool by contracting Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory to develop two new prototype ground penetrating radar systems. These two systems generate three-dimensional data that provide a representation of features that lie below the bridge deck surface. Both of these systems produce large amounts of data for an individual bridge deck, which makes automated data processing very desirable. The primary goal of the automated processing is to characterize bridge deck distress represented in the data. This study presents data collected from sample bridge deck sections using one of the prototype systems. It also describes the development and implementation of appropriate methods for automating data processing. The automated data processing is accomplished using image processing and pattern recognition algorithms developed in the study. / Ph. D.

A set of experimental tests were performed at Virginia Tech to investigate transverse joints and blockouts on full depth concrete bridge deck panels. The joints were designed on a deck replacement project for a rural three span continuous steel girder bridge in Virginia. Two cast-in-place and four post-tensioned joints were designed and tested in cyclical loading. Each joint was tested on a full scale two girder setup in negative bending with a simulated HS-20 vehicle. The blockouts were built as hollow concrete rings filled with grout and left to shrink under ambient conditions. Thirteen combinations of different surface conditions and grouts were designed to test the bond strength between the materials. The strain profile, cracking patterns, and ponding results were measured for all specimens. A finite element analysis was performed and calibrated with the laboratory results. The cast-in-place joints and the two post-tensioned joints with 1.15 MPa (167 psi) of initial stress experienced cracking and leaked water by the end of the tests. The two post-tensioned joints with 2.34 MPa (340 psi) initial stress kept the deck near a tensile stress of 1.5√(𝑓'c) and performed the best. These transverse joints did not leak water, did not have full depth cracking, and maintained a nearly linear strain distribution throughout the design life. Full depth deck panel may be effectively used on continuous bridges if a sufficient amount of post-tensioning force is applied to the transverse joints. The finite element model provides a design tool to estimate the post-tensioning force needed to keep the tensile stresses below the cracking limit. The blockouts with a roughened surface or an epoxy and a grout equivalent to Five Star Highway Patch grout had the highest bond stresses, did not leak water, and had smaller cracks at the grout-concrete interface than the control samples. A minimum bond strength of 2.5√(𝑓'c) was maintained for all of the specimens with a grout equivalent to Five Star Highway Patch. A pea gravel additive in the grout reduced shrinkage and reduced the bond strength. The finite element model provides a design tool to estimate cracking at the grout-surface interface. / Ph. D.

After 17 years in service, a 3 ft by 3 ft closure pour section of an Interstate 81 (I-81) bridge deck failed by punching through near Marion, Virginia. Visual inspection noted that there was considerable corrosion on some of the reinforcing bars in the vicinity of the construction joint, while other failure bars had little or no corrosion. Sections of the bridge deck were cut and delivered to Virginia Tech for further investigation. It was clear from an initial investigation that shrinkage of the deck concrete had caused the construction joints to open and thereby allow water and chlorides to enter the joint. In addition, it was observed that several bars across the closure pour construction joints had suffered significant section loss due to corrosion, but it was not clear if fatigue and strength failure of the reinforcing bars were also contributing factor in the closure pour failure. To study the problem four fatigue tests and five strength tests performed. The specimens included six slab strips cut from the I-81 bridge deck, with the 3-ft closure pour included, and three additional specimens that were cast in the laboratory to represent a base line for performance. A three-point loading setup was used for both fatigue and strength tests. However, for the final strength and fatigue tests, a jacking system was designed and implemented in an effort to open the closure pour construction joints to simulate the open joints of the I-81 bridge. The objectives of this research program are to provide a better understanding of the closure pour failure mechanism, develop inspection procedures for Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) to assess its bridge inventory containing similar construction joints, and to develop recommendations for future construction of similar construction joints. / Master of Science

As the aging bridges and infrastructure within the US continue to deteriorate, traffic delays due to construction will become more and more common. One method that can reduce delays due to bridge construction is to use precast deck panels. Precast deck panels can significantly reduce the overall length of the construction project. The panels can be manufactured ahead of time, and with higher quality control than is possible in the field. One of the reasons precast deck panels are not widely accepted is because of a lack of research concerning the required post-tensioning force, shear stud pocket placement, and proper joint design. In a recent dissertation (Swenty 2009) numerous recommendations were made for joint design, shear stud pocket design, and post-tensioning force for full-depth precast deck panel bridges. Design drawings were included for the replacement of a bridge located in Scott County, Virginia. The research in this report focuses on the short-term and long-term testing of this bridge. The short-term testing involved performing a live load test in which two trucks of known weight and dimensions were positioned on the bridge in order to maximize the negative moment at the joints over the piers and document strains and deflections at a number of other critical locations. The long-term testing involved monitoring the strains within the deck and on one of the six girders for a number of months in order to document the changes in strain due to creep and shrinkage. The results of these tests were compared to 2D beam-line models and to the parametric study results of Bowers' research on prestress loss within full-depth precast deck panel bridges. It was determined that the bridge was acting compositely and that the post-tensioning force was sufficient in keeping the joints in compression during testing. / Master of Science

Shallow geothermal energy (SGE) systems are becoming increasingly popular due to both their environmental and economic value. By using the ground as a source and sink for thermal energy, SGE systems are able to more efficiently heat and cool structures. However, their utility beyond structural heating and cooling is being realized as their applications now extend to slab and pavement heating, grain and agricultural drying, and swimming pool temperature control. Relatively recently, SGE systems have been combined with deep foundations to create a dual purpose element that can provide both structural support as well as thermal energy exchange with the subsurface. These thermo-active foundations provide the benefits of SGE systems without the additional installation costs. One of the novel applications of thermo-active foundations is in bridge deck deicing. Bridge decks experience two main winter weather related problems. The first of which is preferential icing, where the bridge freezes before the adjacent roadway because the bridge undergoes hastened energy loss due to its exposed nature. The second problem is the accelerated deterioration of concrete bridge decks resulting from the application of salts and other chemicals that are used to prevent accumulation and/or melt the frozen precipitation on roads and bridges. By utilizing the foundation of a bridge as a mechanism by which to access the shallow geothermal energy of the subsurface, energy can be supplied to the deck during the winter to melt and/or prevent frozen precipitation. An experimental ground-source bridge deck deicing system was constructed and the performance is discussed. Numerical models simulating the bridge deck and subsurface system components were also created and validated using the results from the numerical tests. Furthermore, the observed loads that result in a foundation from bridge deck deicing tests are shown. In order to better design for these loads, tools were developed that can predict the temperature change in the subsurface and foundation components during operation. Mechanisms by which to improve the efficiency of these systems without increasing the size of the borehole field were explored. Ultimately this research shows that SGE can effectively be used for bridge deck deicing. / Ph. D.

Reinforced concrete (RC) bridge decks are exposed to chlorides from deicing salts. Chloride ingress in RC initiates corrosion of the reinforcing steel. The high costs of corrosion have sparked interest in service life design of bridge decks. This thesis characterized the exposure conditions of Virginia, including temperature and surface chloride concentration, as well as Virginia concrete mix properties, including initial chloride concentration and chloride migration coefficient. The service life estimations for a case study bridge in Virginia from three service life models were compared. The first model is based on the fib Bulletin 34 Model Code for Service Life Design, the second is a finite element solution of the fib Bulletin, and the third accounts for a time-, temperature-, moisture-, and concentration-dependent apparent diffusion coefficient. A sensitivity analysis was completed on the three models showing that the most important variables in these models are the aging coefficient and surface chloride concentration. Corresponding life cycle cost analyses were completed for plain and corrosion resistant reinforcing steel. This thesis showed that the error function solution underestimates chloride ingress. The life cycle cost analysis of plain and corrosion resistant reinforcing steels show that overestimation of service life leads to underestimation of life cycle costs. / Master of Science

Deterioration of bridge decks is an ongoing problem faced by transportation agencies across the country. In past decades, Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) techniques, capable of detecting various deteriorations types, e.g., cracking, delamination and reinforcing steel corrosion, have emerged. These techniques generate large amounts of data representing different underlying physics, (decibels for ground penetrating radar and volts for half-cell potential), making data interpretation and comparison difficult for bridge owners and practitioners. The deterioration threshold, or the transition between healthy and deteriorated areas, is essential in understanding NDE data. However, this threshold is determined empirically in former research and engineering practice. In the present research, a probability-based method is proposed to identify deterioration thresholds for specified confidence levels. NDE data measuring different underlying physics are transformed into a binary format by threshold values to compare and combine multiple NDE techniques for bridge deck assessment. The finite element method is also implemented to correlate bridge deck surface stresses with deteriorations measured by NDE techniques, and to study the causes on concrete bridge deck degradation. The general methodology developed in this study will be demonstrated on three bridges, i.e., Virginia, New Jersey and New York Pilot Bridges, which were studied under Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)'s Long-Term Bridge Performance (LTBP) Program. / Ph. D.

Highway bridge decks are often overlaid to extend service life by reducing the rate of chloride ion ingress and the rate of corrosion of reinforcing steel in the sound chloride-contaminated concrete that is left in-place. Bridge deck overlays in Virginia are usually either latex-modified concrete or microsilica concrete, and both types of overlay are considered equivalent in terms of performance. However, the latex-modified concrete overlays are more expensive to construct than the microsilica concrete overlays. Thus, it is important to determine if these overlays do perform equivalently to ensure that short-term savings do not lead to higher long-term costs. Shrinkage is one of the overlay performance parameters. Shrinkage is a three-dimensional deformation of concrete that results in an overall reduction in volume. Total shrinkage may be measured under either restrained or unrestrained conditions. This research examines the shrinkage performances of Virginia Department of Transportation-approved latex-modified and microsilica concrete overlay mixtures and was conducted on both field-sampled and laboratory-fabricated restrained and unrestrained specimens. Based on crack and delamination surveys of sampled bridge decks and laboratory test results, a shrinkage performance-based specification for the Virginia Department of Transportation was developed. There was no significant difference between the unrestrained shrinkage values of latex-modified and microsilica concrete overlay mixtures for the specified time periods. Restrained microsilica concrete specimens generally cracked earlier and more frequently than restrained latex-modified concrete specimens. However, the bridge deck crack and delamination surveys show that construction conditions and quality and traffic type and frequency may have a greater effect on cracking than the overlay material. / Master of Science

The use of full-depth precast concrete bridge deck panels is becoming more and more attractive to transportation authorities throughout the country. In comparison to conventional cast-in-place decks, precast decks are of higher quality, allow for the bridge to be opened to traffic in less time and are easier to maintain, rehabilitate, and replace. This ultimately results in lower costs for transportation authorities and less disruption for the motoring public. Unfortunately, the use of precast deck panel systems is hindered by the lack of design standardization and information regarding the performance of such systems. This research focuses on a key element of the system, the mortar or grout, which is used to connect the precast panels to the bridge girders by filling the space in the horizontal shear pockets and the haunches. Several essential mortar characteristics were identified and investigated in order to create a specification that indicates required performance criteria for mortars. This specification can be used to determine whether particular mortars or grouts are suitable for use in a full-depth precast concrete bridge deck panel system. / Master of Science