This thesis sets the opposition to the First World War in Wales in the context of the country�s tradition of activism in favour of peace and against a background of initial enthusiasm in favour of the War. It provides a critical assessment of the academic interpretation of Wales�s attitudes towards War, assesses the development of opposition to the continuation of the War from Autumn 1914 onwards, and describes the range of anti-war activity and analyses the sources of political and religious opposition to the War. It provides an analysis of the composition of opposition to the War on religious grounds in Wales, and considers the significance of the Christian pacifist organisation, the Fellowship of Reconciliation, together with a review of the extent of the opposition to the War within Nonconformist denominations. The significance of key individuals such as Principal Thomas Rees and key Welsh publications such as Y Deyrnas are highlighted, and particular consideration is given to the role of millenarian sects within the anti-war movement. The politically based anti-war movement in Wales is examined primarily through an analysis of the activities of the Independent Labour Party and its impact in two of its local strongholds, in Briton Ferry and Merthyr Tydfil. It also considers the role of the National Council for Civil Liberties and the No- Conscription Fellowship and those involved in industrial agitation against conscription in south Wales, and the extent to which this featured as part of the anti-war movement. This thesis provides an analysis of the numbers of conscientious objectors in Wales, their grounds for objection, their geographical distribution and their political and religious allegiances. It considers how the State dealt with the challenge of conscientious objection and how successful the anti-war movement was in challenging military conscription and support for the war in Wales.

The process of devolution in Wales has catalysed major political, cultural, social and institutional change. While these changes have been reflected within the research agendas of academics working within a number of disciplines, the study of criminal justice in Wales remains something of an exception. This research is an attempt to try and address this lacuna. The research charts the emergence of Wales as a distinct criminological space within the once ‘uniform’ system of England and Wales. This is explained as a consequence of the intersection of devolution in Wales with changes to the UK Government’s approach to criminal justice in England and Wales. The research shows that the unique constitutional arrangements that exist in Wales have led to the emergence of a hybrid system: criminal justice policy space occupied by two different governments, each with its own democratic mandate, policy vision and priorities. Having explained the emergence of the hybrid system in Wales, the research goes on to examine a number of key issues that emerge into clearer focus when Wales is taken seriously as a unit of criminological analysis. As such the thesis contributes towards wider criminological debates at the level of policy, practice and theory. These findings also help to develop a more critical understanding of Wales’ hybrid system. The research shows that the very structure of the hybrid system creates a situation in which UK Government criminal justice policies undermine the Welsh Government’s attempts to fulfil its responsibilities or fully implement its own policy objectives. The arguments presented throughout this research challenge the discipline of criminology to take account of the impacts of devolution on the ostensibly non-devolved criminal justice system in Wales. They also contribute towards a better understanding of debates now taking place over the possible devolution of criminal justice functions to Wales.

This thesis examines the origins of a set of manuscripts which, for convenience, are known collectively as the ‘Anglo-Saxon Chronicle’. It will be suggested that a central tenet in traditional Chronicle theory may stand in need of revision. Aspects of the received interpretation are considered and assessed against the evidence, and an alternative is developed and put forward. Chapter 1 considers a core assumption in Chronicle studies for over a century — that a single Chronicle archetype, compiled in the early 890s, was the source of all ASC-related entries in all works, both vernacular and Latin. Lexical and other evidence is reviewed suggesting a possible break in ASC at annal 878, perhaps marking the end of a ‘first Alfredian compilation’. Such a source, if it existed, consisted of ASC-related material, but was not ASC. Chapter 2 explores other features relating to this type of entry, also ending at annal 878. The combined evidence appears to suggest that a set of texts, antecedent to the Common Stock, was written in south-western Wessex c. 878, largely from eyewitness testimony, and for purposes related to King Alfred’s presence in the region at that time. I call this hypothetical source ‘P’. Chapter 3 extracts all P-type entries from ASC, and considers the remaining material. Certain unifying features in a majority of these entries may suggest that a set of annals, extending from 449–890 (and possibly earlier), was compiled after P, likely as part of Alfred’s programme of spiritual and educational renewal in the 880s and early 890s. I call this text ‘Q’. Q’s sources include Bede’s Epitome, P, regnal lists, Easter tables (perhaps), and more. Q dealt only with matters of great import to the Anglo-Saxons, presented as short, concise statements of fact entered year by year. I suggest SN derived its ASC-related entries from Q rather than a full Chronicle in the form of the Common Stock. Chapter 4 suggests that yet another set of annals was written c. 892, concerning the activities in England and on the Continent of a viking army which ASC introduces at Fulham in 879. I call this source ‘R’. On the basis of my working hypothesis, I suggest that when Asser came to write his Life of Alfred in 893, rather than drawing upon PQR individually, a single document was prepared combining entries from PQR for the years 851–890, to aid him in writing his royal biography. I call this compilation ‘S’, and suggest that Asser, and, later, the Common Stock’s authors, drew upon S as their source of these annals. Chapter 5 begins by suggesting that, alongside his copy of Asser’s Life, the SN compiler also consulted Q in his 851–887 annals, at times interpolating Asser’s text, and at times adding entire entries. I then consider SN 891- 895, proposing it may represent an early (or original) version of this account of Alfred’s final wars. ASC 891–896, by comparison, appears a much expanded and far more complex revision of the source behind SN’s version. I call SN’s 891–895 hypothetical source ‘T’, and suggest that the Common Stock’s authors used T, along with PQRS, to produce their archetype. Chapter 6 concludes with a summary of the preceding chapters, and offers some suggestions for possible lines of future research.

Intersecting the fields of naval, imperial and Caribbean history, this thesis examines the Royal Navy’s interactions with the inhabitants of the British Caribbean islands between 1756 and 1815. Traditional histories of the Royal Navy in the Caribbean have focused on operational matters, producing narratives that neglect examination of the navy as a socio-cultural force in the region. This thesis aims to address this imbalance by focusing on the navy as a unique social group with multiple roles, which was a constant presence in the Caribbean during a particularly turbulent period at the height of the sugar industry. In conjunction with Catherine Hall’s hypothesis that metropole and colony were ‘mutually constitutive’, the navy is placed at the centre of this study, as it was a powerful institution at the forefront of British imperialism that had a vested interest and connection to both the metropole and the Caribbean. It offers a new perspective that broadens our understanding of the navy and Caribbean society, as part of the wider Atlantic community. Through the often overlooked personal narratives found in correspondence, journals, sketchbooks, and published memoirs of naval observers, this thesis explores how naval seamen represented and reflected upon their experiences and encounters with inhabitants of the Caribbean, highlighting their widespread integration and impact on the region, which previous studies have undervalued. With overlapping themes that engage with debates on empire, nation and identity, it argues that the navy was more than just a protective force as naval seamen were instrumental in the changing social and cultural landscape of the Caribbean, impacting both elite and non-elite communities. In exploring the navy’s social prominence in the region, this thesis offers a textured view of both colonial society and the naval community.

The Boy’s Own Paper and Girl’s Own Paper were launched in 1879 and 1880 respectively by the Religious Tract Society, an evangelical Christian missionary organisation. Both papers were long running, with Girl’s Own Paper ceasing publication in 1956 and Boy’s Own Paper continuing until 1967. Many existing studies of the papers have focused strongly on the Victorian and Edwardian years of their existence, and have often taken content as a starting point, attempting to interpret their meaning or significance. This study adopts a wholly fresh perspective, taking a holistic approach to the papers, and thus acknowledging their production in its entirety. It considers the period from 1914 to 1967, which was a key period for the papers but also a significant time in British social history. Both papers are viewed as constructs; negotiated space in which the publisher, editors and readers all interacted in the production of the text. There is analysis of the role of the Religious Tract Society as publisher, its aims and objectives, its influence in wider society, and the significance of its evangelical outlook. The importance of the editorial role is considered, not least the manner in which editors interacted with readers and set the tone of the papers within the publisher’s framework. Readers’ interactions with the papers are explored, and the opportunities these afforded for them to participate in the construction of the text. The Boy’s Own Paper and Girl’s Own Paper are viewed, not as reflections of reality, but as evidence of the way in which issues such as gender, religious identity and social change were constructed through the interactions of publisher, editors and readers; all of whom saw the papers as far more than ‘just a magazine’.

Existing studies of Thomas Cromwell (c. 1485-1540) have typically interpreted his life and work during the 1530s as being a reflection of his religious beliefs, his administrative zeal or his political ambitions. In doing so they have left a distorted picture of the man and his career, which often takes for granted exactly how he became the king’s leading minister. The purpose of this thesis is to describe how Cromwell rose so spectacularly, by examining previously neglected areas of work he undertook for the king, and presenting the first rounded study of Cromwell and his early career. A new study of Cromwell, which focuses on aspects of his life and work which have never before been examined, enables new insights to be drawn about the minister himself, while shedding fresh light on debate surrounding Henrician Court and government. An examination of Cromwell’s greatly neglected life as a lawyer and merchant in the 1520s demonstrates how he acquired many of the qualities which were required for him to prosper under Henry VIII, while fresh consideration of the manner of Cromwell’s transition into the king’s service challenges the longstanding belief about how and when this occurred. Despite the considerable evidence attesting to them in the State Papers, Cromwell’s earliest responsibilities for the king – those concerning the Crown lands and King’s Works, his management of the Church, and financing war with Scotland – have never before been examined. Doing so enables a new assessment of Cromwell’s early career to be drawn, which challenges the prevailing belief that the break with Rome was vital in his becoming chief minister. Examination of Cromwell’s earliest activities in government then presents an intriguing perspective on Cromwell as an administrative reformer. And the first comprehensive account of his role in the Anglo-papal schism not only offers new insights into his role and influence over this, but questions the existing accounts of the politics of the 1530s.

This thesis examines the dialogue genre in seventeenth-century England. In 1681 when Henry Care established his periodical The Popish Courant he chose the format of a dialogue because people were ‘so set upon dialoging.’ Care’s choice of dialogue for his periodical is indicative of the popularity of dialogue in the seventeenth century. Yet, despite the popularity that dialogue enjoyed in this period it has not received comparative attention by scholars. This thesis seeks to address this gap and make two specific historiographical contributions. Firstly, it demonstrates how the digitization of early modern sources can enable scholars to approach literary history from perspectives that physical books prevent. Using the digital collections of Early English Books Online, British Periodicals Online, and Eighteenth Century Collections Online for its source material this thesis has used a database of dialogues to analyze the genre and provide contextual knowledge about the genre as a whole that can illuminate the rhetorical objectives behind specific uses of dialogue. This is particularly exposed in the final chapter that utilizes this contextual information to understand the appeal of dialogue in Roger L’Estrange’s Observator. Secondly this thesis adds to the growing number of studies of early modern genres such as pamphlets, newspapers, ballads, and chapbooks. The period under discussion was one of significant change in terms of political and social circumstances and this thesis demonstrates that dialogue was sensitive to these political events. By situating the dialogue within the broader print landscape of seventeenth-century England the thesis maps how dialogue adapted to changing circumstances with pamphlet dialogues, periodical dialogues, and dialogues of the dead, in particular emerging in response to social and political events. Looking at the dialogue in the context of other literary forms this thesis argues that the appeal of dialogue was its flexibility and ability to educate a broad range of people across all demographics of seventeenth-century England.

This thesis aims to contribute to the debate on the role and potential of worker co-operatives in a capitalist economy, and analyses the development of the co-operative sector in Britain since the mid-1970s in the context of an economy undergoing a major crisis and restructuring. Part One examines competing theoretical perspectives in economics towards co-operatives. This reviews and criticises the orthodox neoclassical and behavioural approaches, before turning to a marxist analysis and developing it in the context of co-operatives' role as small enterprises in an economy dominated by large firms. The analysis concentrates upon co-operatives' market relationships and competitive position as the mechanism through which they interact with the rest of the economy. Part Two moves from theory to the concrete, and examines the performance of workers co-operatives as commercial enterprises, in three industries (printing, clothing manufacture, and wholefood distribution) which demonstrate contrasting relationships between large and small firms. It includes an overview of the development and characteristics of the co-operative sector, before investigating the financing of co-operative and their commercial performance. This is then explained in the context of the political and economic development of the co-operative sector, of the British economy, and developments in the industries in question. It finds that whilst the performance of co-operative has improved over time, it remains worse than that of competing capitalist firms in terms of wage levels and capacity to generate a reinvestible surplus. Part Three builds upon this work to identify the important conditions and processes which have contributed to the rapid growth and development of the co-operative sector in Britain, and seeks to develop a broad understanding of the means by which the degeneration of co-operative can be avoided. It concludes that the resurgence and growth of co-operative must be located in the particular form of economic restructuring taking place in the early 1980s. The establishment and survival of co-operatives has been dependent upon support for workers' initiatives by the state, and on the nature of market processes in particular areas of the economy. However, these conditions are transient and the future development of the co-operative sector is crucially dependent upon the long term support of the state and the labour movement.

This thesis is an ethnographic study of Asian children who attended Cherrydale School, a mixed comprehensive in the south of England. It is concerned with the first generation of Asian children educated in Britain and is a study of their lives at home and at school. The main focus of this thesis is an exploration of the circumstances in which Asian children negotiate their way in different cultures. This study reveals the complexity of their lives which defies simple explanations. It describes the different ways in which 'race', class and gender combine to produce marginality for Asian children. A study of one single factor would not have given a holistic picture of their lived experience. The field work for this study was undertaken between 1987 and 1990. It draws on the children's, their parents', peers' and teachers' views on education and schooling. It represents different perspectives. To have ignored either the home or the school would have provided an incomplete picture of the world in which these teenagers live. Chapter 1 outlines the main theme of this exploratory study. It introduces the unique position in which Asian children find themselves in Britain in the late 1980s. Chapter 2 surveys the existing literature in the field. As there is very little previous ethnographic research on Asian adolescents which takes into account their home and school experiences, I have referred to a wider body of literature which includes anthropological and ethnic/'race relations' studies. Chapter 3 is about methodological issues. It includes an account of the initial problems of negotiating access, and continuously renegotiating access throughout the duration of this study. Chapter 4 is about Asian parents' world. It is based on matters concerning the parents' past and present which have a direct influence on their children's lives. Chapter 5 establishes a link between parents' education, their employment and their hopes for their children. Chapter 6 looks at children's accounts of their homes and schools, and the effect of gender on their experiences. It also looks at their relationships with their parents, teachers and other members of their communities. Chapter 7 is based on the effect of parents' occupations on children's aspirations including their employment opportunities and their hopes for the future. It also explores the effect of gender. Chapter 8 underlines the connection between gender and spatial constraints at home and at school among Asian boys and girls. Their relationships with their white, African- Caribbean and Asian peers are also discussed, as are the different images they adopt. Chapter 9 is concerned with Asian children's experiences of racism, their descriptions of "good", "bad" and "normal" teachers, their positive and negative experiences of school. Chapter 10 looks at the ways in which the school as an institution responds to the presence of Asian children. It is based on interviews and discussions with several mainstream and ethnic minority teachers. Chapter 11 concludes the thesis by drawing together the main findings of this study and discusses possible similarities between the circumstances of Asians living in Cherrytown with those living outside it. More research is needed in the area of home and school based studies. This chapter makes some concrete suggestions for further research.

This thesis is concerned with the vocationalisation of the school curriculum in Britain from the late nineteenth century to the present. It consists of three sections. The first section constitutes the major theoretical component of the work, and develops a view of society as a dialectically interrelating totality whose parts are invested with differential causal force. The social whole is seen as consisting of micro, meso and macrolevels, which correspond respectively to Inter-individual, interorganizational, and the social relationships which constitute the mode of production. This theory is then used to criticise certain existing approaches towards the sociology of education and develop an alternative which is utilised in the rest of my study. The second section examines the social and economic forces existing on micro, mesa and macro societal levels which were central to the formation and development of school-based vocational schemes. Here, I examine the relationships which have existed between individual career routes, the education system, state, economy, and class struggle. This facilitates an examination of the shifting determinations which constituted vocational education, as they have been located both diachronically and synchronically. The points of interconnection between the forces which impinged upon the progress of vocational education changed between the 'entrepreneurial' (late C19th to WW1), 'collective' (inter-War), and 'corporate' (post WW2) periods of education-industry relations. During these stages, a combination of factors reduced gradually the autonomy of the school system, served to increase the influence of the state over the curriculum, and enabled the introduction of a number of vocational schemes In the 'corporate' period. The final section moves between societal levels in a case-study analysis of the operation of two vocational schemes in a local education authority. This examines how the relationship between micro, meso and macro-levels can introduce disjunctions between the official aims and the actual consequences of vocational schemes. The case-study Is also used to refine elements of the earlier theory and identify the areas of autonomy which remain within micro and meso societal levels. The introduction of the Technical and Vocational Education Initiative, and the Schools Vocational Programme is traced, and their operation is examined. Here, I focus on the subject options process, a school-based vocational course, and the attitudes and approaches of Industrialists, teachers and students to work-experience.