The present study attempted to examine reading and writing behaviors of Musqueam Indian children in kindergarten and grade one to see if a similar profile of reading and writing behaviors existed within this urban unilingual Native Indian population. The relationship these behaviors had with parental provision for literacy activities during the preschool years and school attendance was explored. It was hypothesized that there would be no similar profile of reading and writing behaviors within the Musqueam population and that there would be no correlation between the variables, the index of parental provision for literacy activities during the preschool years, total school absence and reading and writing performance in kindergarten and grade one. Individual administration of the Diagnostic Survey (Clay) at kindergarten and grade one yielded a description of reading and writing behaviors. Subtests measuring knowledge of letter identification, concepts about print, sight words, and writing vocabulary were administered in both grades. Subtests including oral reading of passages, writing level, and dictation were added in grade one. Group means, standard deviations and range of scores were calculated for the Diagnostic Survey subtests at kindergarten and grade one and examined for similarities. A questionnaire was used to establish an index for parental provision for literacy activities. Total school absence was obtained from school records. The relationship subtests of the Diagnostic Survey had with the Index of Parent Suppport for Literacy Activities and School Absence was explored using Pearson Product-Moment correlational analysis. Results indicated that no similar profile of reading and writing behaviors existed within the Musqueam population. Excluding the sight word subtest at K, Pearson Product-Moment correlations between all subtests of the Diagnostic Survey and the Index of Parental Provision for Literacy Activities were found to be significant (p < .05). No significant correlations were found between survey subtests and total school absence. / Education, Faculty of / Language and Literacy Education (LLED), Department of / Graduate

Local B.C. communities facing hardship in the context of global restructuring and reduced demand for primary resource commodities, have increasingly turned to community based economic development (CBED) to strengthen their local economies. These community based strategies differ from place to place but essentially aim to expand the local economy through socially and culturally desirable development, utilizing local resources, and under some form of local control. However there are numerous obstacles to undertaking CBED, one of which is a lack of financing. Credit unions are community based financial institutions which would appear to be likely participants in a process of community based economic development. They possess significant financial resources, and share with CBED a common philosophy of economic self-help, and an orientation towards the local community. The potential for credit union participation in community based economic development is the subject of this thesis. A three part methodology was followed with particular reference to major aspects of the issue. First, a review of the local economic development literature pointed to the importance of financing, management advice and local capacity to develop in the CBED process. The experience of CBED organizations in obtaining assistance from chartered banks and federal government programs such as Local Employment Assistance Development (LEAD) demonstrates that there are significant gaps in support. An alternative such as the credit union is needed. The credit union system was examined to determine if indeed this community based cooperative financial institution holds some promise to assist CBED, and what factors presently act to constrain such participation. There are two fundamental obstacles to credit union participation in CBED. Firstly, there is a lack of will on the part of credit unions to become involved in CBED based on declining member commitment to credit union philosophy. Secondly, credit unions are presently unable to reconcile high levels of risk inherent in lending for CBED with their non-profit structure. Educating credit unions as to the potential benefits arising from CBED may heighten their interest in participating in CBED and there are mechanisms the credit union can employ to reduce risk. Furthermore, credit unions can play some important non-financial roles in support of CBED, which a local orientation and cooperative decision-making framework can enhance. The empirical portion of the research documented the CBED initiatives of Nanaimo District Credit Union and Vancouver City Savings Credit Union. It demonstrated firstly, that there is interest among individual credit unions within the credit union system to participate in CBED, at least in an incremental way; secondly, that credit unions have tended to follow a marginal business development strategy in support of CBED in their respective communities; and thirdly, there are a number of alternative roles, strategies and institutional arrangements for doing so. Based on this review of the major issues and the experience of two credit unions currently participating in CBED, it appears that credit unions do hold some potential an alternative source of community capital and expertise for community based economic development, but at present appear to lack the philosophical basis for doing so, and furthermore, face some constraints to pursuing a financial role in CBED. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The thesis identifies several characteristics intrinsic to a process of local economic development. Intended as a proactive and endogenous process, local economic development seeks to reduce a region's reliance on exported primary resources and external economies. Strategies intended to encourage the process frequently address two factors: how capital leakages can be decreased and how the value of exports can be increased. The thesis addresses two variables in local economic development. One is the role of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurial ventures facilitate new technologies and services, provide competition to existing companies and create new jobs which are locally based and owner-operated. A second variable is the twofold role played by education and the colleges in particular in facilitating the establishment of an environment which is conducive to entrepreneurship. As learning institutions, the colleges have an important role to play in the promotion of attitudes and values required to encourage entrepreneurial ventures. A second role is to identify and address regional economic development opportunities. Informational barriers, in the form of poor access to business educational services, restrict the numbers of entrepreneurial ventures in the province and contribute to high numbers of business failures. A college-based enterprise development centre is introduced in the thesis as a novel way to overcome these barriers and address the needs of the entrepreneur and the small business owner/operator. In their association with the colleges, these centres could also serve to promote attitudes and values which make entrepreneurship and self-employment a feasible option in the minds of college students. The thesis identifies three particular objectives for a college-based enterprise development centre: to deliver highly responsive and flexible educational services to the small business sector; to establish a close and interactive relationship between the college and the small business sector in order to encourage experiential learning and enhanced levels of entrepreneurship among the students, and to identify and facilitate the training for local economic development opportunities. These objectives are contained in a model EDC which is used as a yardstick to evaluate eight enterprise development centres established by the colleges in B.C. via the Local Economic Development and Renewal Fund (LERD). Four particular areas of interest constitute the basis of the evaluation: the extent to which the centres are engaged in a process which contributes to local economic development and the creation of new wealth; the flexible delivery of educational services to the small business sector; the promotion of entrepreneurship; and the integration of the centres with their respective colleges. The most dominant impact of the B.C. enterprise development centres appears to be in the delivery of educational services to the small business sector. The centres provide one-to-one counselling and business services in a way which is flexible and responsive to the needs of the small business sector. They are also actively promoting entrepreneurship in that they have helped to establish support and professional networks for new entrepreneurs. Two primary weaknesses of the existing B.C. structure are the reactive nature of the centres' activities and their weak and poorly integrated links to the colleges. Two overall conclusions are drawn. One, as few regional policies appear to be in place to encourage the formulation of a regional strategy, the thesis concludes that the LERD fund is not reflective of renewed support for regional planning and development in the province. Also, there is little evidence to suggest that a decentralization effort intended to create more local autonomy and control over the colleges is occurring. A second conclusion is that the colleges are not being restructured in order that they may become more pro-actively involved in a process of local economic development. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

In the period between 1858 and 1914, two different waves of Jewish immigrants came to British Columbia. The first wave, composed largely of Jews of German and West European origin, came to British Columbia during the gold-rush period, 1858-1871. The second wave, composed for the most part of East European Jews, settled in the province between 1886 and 1914. This thesis is a historical geographical study of the adaptation of each of the two groups of European Jewish immigrants to their respective new settings in British Columbia. The main questions addressed concern ethnic/religious group formation and survival in new and unfamiliar physical, economic and social environmental conditions. Archival and library sources have yielded most of the primary data on which the thesis was based. The two groups of Jewish immigrants each settled in different parts of British Columbia. Between 1858 and 1871, several hundred German and West European Jews were lured from California by the discovery of gold in the new British colony. Most settled in the city of Victoria on Vancouver Island where they formed a vibrant Jewish community during the gold-rush period. Others went to the smaller communities in, and en route to, the gold-mining regions in the mainland interior of British Columbia. By 1871, in the aftermath of the Cariboo gold-rush, many Jews had left the province, but a small core of Jewish families remained in Victoria. In contrast, between 1886 and 1914, the province received a large influx of generally impoverished Jewish immigrant families who had fled from pogroms in their homelands in Eastern Europe. The city of Vancouver absorbed the majority of these East European Jewish immigrants. Most concentrated in the low-income East End immigrant district of the city. For the most part, the German and West European Jews were merchants and traders whose main business involved provisioning and outfitting the large transient mining population in the Cariboo region during the gold rushes. The base of these commercial operations was in Victoria where a concentration of Jewish businesses emerged after 1858. Many of the Jewish firms in Victoria were linked with Jewish businesses in San Francisco. The first wave of Jewish immigrants was received with a remarkable degree of tolerance and became well-integrated into the British host society in Victoria without losing their ethnic identity. They formed a traditional Jewish community and built a synagogue in 1863 in Victoria. The East European Jews lacked the entrepreneurial spirit of their earlier counterparts in the province. The immediate concern of most of the East European Jewish immigrants upon arrival in Vancouver was to rebuild their uprooted lives. Most set themselves up as tailors, dressmakers, scrap dealers, shopkeepers and petty traders in the East End of Vancouver. By 1914, there was a marked concentration of Jews in the clothing business in Vancouver. Feelings of alienation from the British host society among the East European Jews led to the formation of a segregated, ghetto-like traditional Jewish community in the East End of Vancouver by 1914. Jewish life was focussed on an Orthodox congregation which built the first synagogue in Vancouver in 1911. Despite shared religious traditions, the two waves of Jewish immigrants each produced widely different 'Jewish geographies' in British Columbia between 1858 and 1914. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

The problem was three—fold: (1) to document formative influences on a population who possessed enlightened and cherishing attitudes toward art; (2) to compare their experiences with relevant aspects of Harry S. Broudy's notion of enlightened cherishing; (3) to assess what implications these findings might have for the most recent British Columbia fine arts curricula. Procedure Fifty personal interviews were conducted with a population consisting of visual artists, art critics, art historians, art teachers, art gallery curators, aestheticians, art collectors, and an art consultant. The instrument was an open—ended question schedule which allowed for separate analysis and interpretation of experiences which were: (1) educational (formal) vs. extra-curricular (informal); (2) studio art experiences (aesthetic expression) vs. art critical/historical/aesthetic—based experiences (aesthetic impression). From these taped interviews, thirty were chosen for transcription. The resulting data were categorized and qualitatively analyzed. Comparisons were made with prior research relating to art attitudes, with aspects of Broudy's theory and, finally, with aspects of the British Columbia fine arts curricula. Conclusions : The research supports Broudy's recommendations for more teacher training in art, for art classes at elementary level to occur on a daily basis and for art classes to be given equal status with other subjects in schools. The research does not support Broudy's recommendation that specific art exemplars be chosen by curriculum designers for implementation in the classroom by teachers. Instead, the research suggests that operational-definitional standards in art be suggested by curriculum designers so that teachers may make their own choices for exemplars and, when appropriate, even use exemplars from the realm of what Broudy refers to as popular art. Recommendations : Out of this study come the following recommendations for art education in British Columbia: — that the level of training for elementary generalists be upgraded in areas of aesthetics, art history, and studio methods. — that more art monospecialists be recruited at both elementary and secondary school levels. — that both teacher training and art curricula include references to the significant role (in nurturing a cherishing attitude toward art) played by: a teacher's encouragement of the student's progress in art; open-ended and imaginative teaching strategies allowing for some independence for the student; sound evaluation practices; and knowledge and enthusiasm for the subject area. — that the implementation of art curricula in schools be mandatory and that the art curricula include information on the use and choice of art exemplars (works, materials, and processes). — that time for art (aesthetic expression and aesthetic impression) equivalent to that allotted for other subjects be provided at the elementary school level. / Education, Faculty of / Curriculum and Pedagogy (EDCP), Department of / Graduate

This thesis is concerned with the manner in which labour has been employed in the British Columbia fishing industry, and with the more general historical development of a labour force which provides labour power at wages below full subsistence costs. The phrase "cheap labour" refers to this labour force. The thesis briefly traces the emergence of capitalism in feudal England and argues that labour power was priced in two ways. Organised male craft workers fought for the "family wage"; that is, for wages that would cover not only their own costs of production and reproduction, but also those of their dependents. This meant, however, that when women and children worked for wages, these were not designed to cover their subsistence requirements. They were employed as "cheap labour." With European colonisation, gender criteria were extended to incorporate racial criteria. It is argued that cheap labourers came to be distinguished by race and ethnicity, in addition to gender and age. The differentiation of labour based on biological criteria was adopted elsewhere, and the main body of the thesis is concerned with how this process occurred within British Columbia's fishing industry. The B.C. industry began with canners who had to recruit a new labour force in regions without large supplies of European workers. The thesis traces how canners employed native peoples and Chinese male labourers. The argument is advanced that these groups were paid wages below the costs of subsistence, and that the groups survived because they were embedded in pre-capitalist social relations. They subsisted through a combination of wage labour and unpaid work. The thesis examines Marx's labour theory of value for its utility in explaining the development of a "cheap labour force." Although the theory must be re-worked to incorporate two forms of labour power, it provides a more appropriate model than that of the dual labour market theories. The method of historical materialism, which Marx employed, can be used to re-work the labour theory of value. In particular, the method allows for an analysis of resistance by labourers (for example, through trade union organization, such as the United Fishermen and Allied Workers' Union). These theoretical applications are discussed in the thesis. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

It is the belief in the discipline of Urban Land Economics that as one moves further from the city center population density decreases and average household income increases. These two hypotheses have shown to be accurate in describing cities in the United States, but few studies have been done to see if the two hypotheses are also true for Canadian cities. The general intent of the thesis, therefore, was to properly model the population density pattern and income pattern of Metropolitan Vancouver to see how well they could be explained and to see if they followed the patterns of American cities. In order to address the general intent, several specific issues dealing with density and income studies had to be examined: the functional form of the models, the best proxy of access (straight-line distance or time spent in travel to the city center), whether determinants other than distance should be used in the density equation, and whether Metropolitan Vancouver should be modelled as a monocentric or multi-centric city. The techniques applied to answer these questions and fulfil the general intent included reviewing the literature, applying theory to develop models and then using ordinary least squares to test the models. The results were very good. Although no functional form could be derived for the income pattern, the negative exponential form proved, theoretically and practically, to work well for the density pattern. The distance variable was a better determinant of density than the travel time variable. Two variables, income and distance, proved to be the best determinants of population density by explaining almost half of the variation in population density. Finally, Metropolitan Vancouver was shown to be a multi-centric region but added effects of the extra center did little to help explain the density patterns. The results also showed that population density in Metropolitan Vancouver does decrease and, although not conclusive, income does generally increase with distance from the city center. These facts support the hypotheses and suggest that the density and income patterns are much like those of major U.S. cities. / Business, Sauder School of / Real Estate Division / Graduate

The problems encountered by mineral explorationists when sampling stream sediments for gold were investigated by considering the sparsity of free gold particles and their tendency to form small placers at certain locations in the stream bed. Fourteen 20-kg samples of -5-mm sediment were collected from contrasting energy and geochemical environments in five streams draining gold occurrences in southern British Columbia. The samples were sieved to six size fractions (420 µm to 52 µm) and gold content was determined by neutron activation analysis following preparation of two density fractions using methylene iodide. Gold concentrations were converted to estimated number of free gold particles and the Poisson probability distribution was used to show that much larger field samples (>100 kg of -1 mm screened sediment) would be required to reduce random variability due to nugget effects to acceptable levels. However, in a comparison of conventional sampling methods, the lowest probability of failing to detect a stream sediment gold anomaly is obtained using the sampling method described in this study. Small-scale placer formation was investigated by collecting twenty 60-kg samples of -2-mm sediment from ten locations along five kilometres of Harris Creek in the Okanagan region, east of Vernon. Samples were prepared and analysed as described above though heavy-mineral concentrates were only prepared for two size fractions. Gold was found to be considerably enriched in sandy-gravel deposits compared to sand deposits, with the effect decreasing as sediment size decreased. The level of enrichment varies on the stream in response to changing channel slope and local hydraulic conditions. Gold anomaly dilution is apparent in sand deposits but not apparent in sandy-gravel deposits since gold is preferentially deposited in gravels as channel slope decreases. These results are presented in the framework of H.A. Einstein's sediment transport model. Sediment collected from gravels may represent the best geochemical sample since placer-forming processes produce high gold concentrations, however in very high energy streams, the small quantities of fine sediment in gravels may lead to unacceptable nugget effects. In the latter case, a sample collected from a sand deposit is a satisfactory alternative. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

The principal focus of this comparative-historical study is the fundamental differences in the perspectives of the Indian, commercial, and sportfishing user groups. A second focus is the differences in outlook of the professions involved in the management of the fisheries, and how their management paradigms have developed over time. Evidence is presented on the social history of the fisheries, including their regulatory history and the manager-user relationship. Using the rich material presented by the participants in the Pearse Commission as a primary source, the perspectives of user and manager are outlined. In particular, the views users expressed on the emotional policy issue of TURFs are defined. A comparison of these views clarifies the major interests within the fisheries. Observation of the interactions between the user groups and regulatory authorities, both during and after the Commission, reveals the ability of these interest groups to lobby very effectively within the Canadian democratic system. The major social conflicts within the fisheries that are representative of the importantly different perspectives are: culture conflict, sportfishing/commercial fishing conflict, political ideological conflict, and conflict between profession frames. The most serious conflict is between Indians and other resource users. Indians have sought legal recognition of existing aboriginal rights in fishing, involving increased allocations to Indian users; other users greatly fear displacement as the resources are reallocated. As independent "co-management" planning procedures are being carried on simultaneously between Indian bands and government, and between commercial and sport groups and government, the objectives of the two often conflict. The result is a management and allocation process that remains extremely volatile and subject to such intensive lobbying that rational planning is difficult. The fisheries management and planning process could benefit from the greater inclusion of the social sciences, a move which would help describe with greater accuracy the complex human components of the fisheries. Such an approach would also seek to develop the potential of mediation and negotiation as a means of integrating a number of rational, professional frameworks with user group perspectives, and would imply a continuance in the recent shift from centralist to intermediary planning. It is suggested that crucial management decisions relating to "endangered" stocks of salmon be delegated to councils of professional biologists, for in such cases it is important that lobbying processes not be allowed to compromise conservation principles. Also, economists should assume management roles that can better accommodate, in the processes of policy making, the heavy overlay of politically-important social policies inherent in the fisheries. To date, intense negotiation and bargaining processes, involving both user groups and the management professions, have been effectively conducted on both a public and private level. These processes have promoted ongoing social learning which has had a positive effect within the B.C. salmon fisheries (examples are the Pearse Commission, MAC, CFIC, PARK, and the Canada/U.S. Treaty). These types of processes appear to lend themselves to the establishment of lasting bio-anthropological contracts, and the subsequent realization of more rational salmon fisheries management. A planning process focused upon reducing social conflict, through the development of ongoing negotiation processes between the many participants in the fisheries, is considered the most likely to succeed. Not only will this better maintain the generally good record of biological sustainability of the B.C. salmon fisheries, but also it will gradually enable the full development of their considerable economic and social potential. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

A study has been conducted with the objectives of (1) identifying weevils and their parasitoids emerging from infested lodgepole pine leaders, (2) determining emergence patterns of hosts and their parasitoids, and (3) obtaining further information on the biologies of the terminal weevils and their natural enemies in British Columbia. The major experiments and biological observations were carried out in young spaced lodgepole pine, (Pinus contorta Dougl. var. latifolia Engelm.), stands at Ellis creek, near Penticton, B.C. A total of 1046 infested leaders were collected. One-third of the terminals were dissected and the numbers of weevils and parasitoids at developmental stages were recorded. The remainder of the leaders were set up for individual rearing. Observations were also made on the feeding and ovipositional behavior of the weevils. Feeding habits of the parasitoids were also studied. Dissections showed that a few adult weevils emerge in the fall of the year of attack. The majority of adults overwinter as larvae but pupation also may occur prior to winter. In addition, dissections indicated that parasitism plays an important role in larval mortality of weevils. Weevils which emerged in the laboratory were identified as being of the following species: Pissodes terminalis Hopping, Magdalis gentilis LeC. and Cylindrocopturus sp. (COLEOPTERA: Curculionidae). M. gentilis is the first weevil species to emerge, in late May. This emergence is followed by that of P. terminalis from early June through mid-July, while Cylindrocopturus sp. emerges from early June through mid-July. P. terminalis attacks the current year's leaders, whereas adult M. gentilis and Cylindrocopturus sp. feed on foliage. All three weevil species utilize lodgepole pine terminal shoots for breeding. Larval feeding under the bark almost always results in the death of the terminal. The terminal weevils have a complex of natural enemies in British Columbia. Parasitoids belong to six families of the order Hymenoptera. The pteromalid Rhopalichus pulchripennis Crawford is the most widely distributed parasitoid species in the province. Two species of Eurytoma (Eurytomidae) ranked second in abundance. Emergence patterns of adult parasitoids are closely synchronized with that of their hosts. Parasitoids were observed feeding on pollen of flowering weeds in the field. This observation suggests that natural parasitoid populations could be enhanced by cultivating lupin, Lupinus sp., in lodgepole pine stands. It was concluded that every effort should be made to minimize weevil numbers in order to prevent formation of crooks, forks and stag-heads. Early emergence of M. gentilis suggests that leader clipping projects should be carried out by early spring. Further research is recommended to ensure correct association between parasitoids and host weevil species and to develop or establish methods for preservation of parasitoids for clipped leaders for release in the forest. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate