The purpose of this thesis was to explore the effectiveness of community kitchens as an empowerment tool. This thesis observes the ways in which community kitchens empower their participants, how they are being used to foster community development, and the opportunities and constraints in using community kitchens as an empowerment tool. The research questions are addressed in a variety of ways. First, a comprehensive literature review was undertaken to define the meaning of empowerment and community development as used by this thesis. Secondly, a multiple case study approach involving participant observation, key informant interviews and a survey was conducted to examine these questions. A total of seven community kitchens were involved in the case studies. The research suggests that community kitchens do empower participants but at an individual level. Participants learn skills such as cooperation, cooking and socialisation, and are empowered through self-help and by gaining confidence and self-esteem. At a community level, efforts have been made to empower the community and contribute to community building processes but with limited output. In some community kitchens, community development initiatives (such as volunteering to cook for a larger community) are in place but community kitchens as a whole has a minimal effect in creating community. Community kitchens, however, are effective at empowering individuals which is considered the first step to community empowerment.

Forest disturbances significantly affect snowmelt dominated watersheds. Given that snowmelt from mountain regions provides up to 80% of the annual stream ow in the North American west, disturbances in these watersheds will impact water availability for downstream users. This study used eld data from stand-scale studies to represent forest disturbances in a hydrological model in order to quantify the potential snow hydrology response to varying spatial extent of disturbance. The sensitivity of snow accumulation and ablation response increased with disturbance severity and extent of disturbance. Results may provide water resource management with a greater understanding of the potential impact on post-disturbance snowmelt runo ff. / xii, 135 leaves : ill. ; 29 cm

The British Columbian (BC) coast spans a 1000 km range of complex coastal geographic and oceanographic conditions that include thousands of islands, glacial carved fjords, exposed rocky coastline, and warm inlands seas. Very little is known about invertebrate fouling communities along the BC coast as studies are usually localised, focused in ports, or are conducted in the intertidal environment. This study provides the first high resolution study of invertebrate fouling communities of the BC coast by describing the identity, richness, diversity, and community composition of invertebrate fouling communities. Studying fouling communities on artificial surfaces was useful because the limiting resource (space) was defined, the researcher could control the timeframe, the samples were easily transported long distances, and the system can be easily replicated. Settlement structures were deployed in the spring of 2007 from the floating structures of marinas, docks, and aquaculture facilities. The deployment sites spanned a range of coastal environments from the Alaskan border to the southern tip of Vancouver Island, and included the Queen Charlotte Islands and Vancouver Island. The settlement arrays were collected roughly five months following deployment. Samples were transported back to the laboratory where all organisms present on the settlement arrays were identified to the lowest taxonomic level possible and their relative abundance recorded. The invertebrate fouling community was very species rich with 171 species identified and an additional 34 categories of unresolved taxa. This high richness may be attributed to the fact that the settlement arrays sampled the community as a whole, including motile and rare species. The richness per sample ranged from 1 to 29 species with the average being 12 species, of which more than one (1.25) was introduced to the BC coast. This invertebrate fouling community was dominated by relatively few species. Only 20% of the sessile species had an average cover over 1% and only 13% of the motile species had an average count over 0.5 individuals per sample. Of the sessile species, the Mytilus sp. complex was the most common with an average coverage of 35%. The Mytilus sp. complex was also found in 78% (126/162) of all samples. There were eleven introduced and twelve cryptogenic species identified in this study. Introduced species represented 30% of the dominant (=most abundant) sessile species and 20% of the dominant motile species study. The introduced and cryptogenic species were more abundant than native species when comparing abundance based on their distributions in the samples. The prominence and abundance of the introduced species in these communities may be an artefact of studying anthropogenic sites. However, it underscores the fact that the establishment and spread of non-native species are continuing along our coast, and that the strong competitive ability of a number of these species may have negative ecological and economic impacts. There were strong similarities in community composition across all geographic areas of the BC (Strait of Georgia-SOG, Juan de Fuca Strait- JFS, west coast of Vancouver Island-WCVI, Johnstone Strait-JS, and the north coast of the mainland-NC). The most common species assemblage was the Mytilus sp. complex and its associated species. The species assemblages observed across numerous geographic areas included species that were strong space competitors, had ranges that included the length of our study area, had key reproductive periods during the sampling period, and were able to recruit to artificial substrates. Anthropogenic structures may also be partially responsible for the strong similarities in community composition along the coast as we may be sampling species that are best adapted to these environments. Additionally, anthropogenic structures and activities may serve as vectors of species dispersal. Pairwise comparisons showed that the WCVI differed from the JFS and QCI in community composition in that the WCVI was strongly influenced by the Mytilus sp. community but the JFS and QCI were influenced by introduced and cryptogenic species. This study is the first to examine fouling communities that span the length of the BC coast. The data collected can be used as a baseline of comparison for future studies on subjects such as climate change, human mediated species introductions, and anthropogenic disasters. / Graduate

Social capital refers to the relationships between people that are productive: it can provide people with access to resources, ease transactions, and facilitate social and economic development at the community level. It has been conceptualized as both associations between people and attitudes of trust and cooperation that enable ties to be productive. Within communities, these attitudes underlie social cohesion, which can be defined as social integration and a propensity to cooperate and contribute to the community. Moreover, it is interaction and social engagement that develops social capital by creating and maintaining relationships and fostering social cohesion. This thesis presents an analysis of the development of social capital in coastal British Columbia by considering how the social participation of community members generates socially cohesive attitudes. Moreover, I empirically consider how this relationship varies for different people in different places and across two different types of participation. Formal participation refers to engagement in structured and organized group activities, such as rotary clubs or sports teams, while informal activities are casual irregular and often spontaneous, such as visiting with friends. Using a series of multiple linear regressions on survey data from rural coastal communities in British Columbia, I test how the relationship between these two types of participation and social cohesion varies according to people’s socio-demographic characteristics or the communities in which they live. Not only does this research consider who develops social capital in this way, but also whether the relationship between participation and social cohesion differ along these social lines. The results show that processes of social capital development reflect the characteristics and social environments of community members in coastal British Columbia. The variability shows that social capital development is embedded within particular contexts in ways can lead to inequalities in social capital.

Recent evidence suggests that strong, positive organizational cultures characterize high performance schools. Themes related to the concept of organizational culture (e.g. climate, ethos, values, underlying assumptions, style) have been the subject of investigation for more than half a century. However, because the concept has been examined with numerous variables, methodologies, and theoretical frameworks, there is a lack of common understanding in the literature about the term organizational culture, particularly as it applies to schools. The general purposes of this research, therefore, are: (1) to contribute to the clarification of the concept of organizational culture as it applies to educational administration and organizational theory, (2) to describe the organizational cultures of three high performance British Columbia (BC) secondary schools and to describe the similarities and differences among their cultures, and (3) to evaluate the research technique for discovering and describing the organizational cultures of schools. Anticipating cultural variation associated with population size, geographic location, and public/private school settings, one urban, one rural, and one independent school were selected for study from among the highest performing British Columbia secondary schools. Academic achievement on specific provincially developed assessment instruments was used to gauge the relative performance levels of the province's secondary schools. Data were primarily gathered using semi-structured audio-taped interviews with all school administrators and randomly selected samples of students, teachers, parents, and secretaries or custodians. The taped interviews were later transcribed and analyzed using content analysis. Examination of school documents and informal observation also provided sources of data. The principal conclusions of this study are listed below: 1. The values held by the members of the study's schools were highly congruent, and common values were enumerated. With reference to Hodgkinson's (1978) value paradigm, the vast majority of values were interpreted as Type 2A and/or Type 2B. 2. Although many attitudes were unique features of individual schools, the majority were common among the schools. These are analyzed and described. 3. Despite the fact that normative expectations were highly congruent among the organizations, a great deal more variability existed for cultural norms than was the case for attitudes and values. 4. Within each school the cultural perceptions of organizational members were highly congruent. 5. Although all three schools were characterized by relatively strong organizational cultures, that of the independent school was interpreted as stronger than either the rural or the urban school. 6. No appreciable difference in cultural strength was identified between the rural and the urban school. 7. A positive relationship appeared to exist between respondents' perception of the organizational culture and the length of time they had been associated with the school. Furthermore, after one year in the independent and after two years in the public schools, organizational members appeared to have become acculturated. 8. The study's semi-naturalistic approach allowed the researcher to discover and describe school-wide organizational cultures in the study schools. 9. This research suggests that perhaps most important to the success of an organization are the underlying values and attendant attitudes. The research, therefore, promotes the notion that future investigations concentrate on the organizational values and attitudes associated with schools. / Graduate

The British Columbia Apple industry, primarily located in the Southern Interior of the province, has undergone varying levels of tree removal and replanting as growers attempt to maximize profits. This study models their behaviour by using econometrics in a supply response model. The economic environment of the fruit industry is described. The variables affecting acreage responses to removals and replanting of new and traditional apple varieties are estimated using Ordinary Leased Squares in three separate equations. Data are pooled and aggregated at the regional level. Several versions of the original model are run to test for robustness of the variables and of the original model. The econometric models illustrated that the plantings of new varieties increases when expected profits from vintage trees decline. However, planting and removals of traditional varieties are positively related to excepted profits from vintage trees and this does not follow apriori expectations. More striking in the model is the regional differences and their responsiveness to removals and replanting. Regions with younger, better educated farmers replant to new varieties at a faster rate than other regions. Replant programs are shown to have a negative effect on the rate of replanting. These programs maintain basic criteria for their eligibility to funding and seemingly decreased the acres replanted. Increasing the monetary value of the replant grants results in the effect of increasing the acreage of traditional varieties being planted. Policy implications are examined in a post modelling analysis. The effects of top loading subsidy effects are shown to have decreased the acreage of trees replanted over time. These effects are shown to cause a dead weight loss to society of approximately $13 million over 20 years. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

This thesis examines the changing role of British Columbia's municipal governments in affordable housing policy. In recent years, the federal government of Canada has withdrawn from active involvement in affordable housing provision, and has passed responsibility back to the provinces. The government of British Columbia has, in turn, amended its Municipal Act through Bills 20 (1992), 57 (1993) and 31 (1994), to grant municipal governments increased planning powers in the field of affordable housing. This thesis examines the responses of municipal governments to these changes and specifically investigates whether the decentralization of responsibility has to led to policy innovation. This research question is addressed in three ways. First, through a review of the theoretical literature and legislation, a discussion is presented concerning the issue of decentralization and the ways it has been enacted in the case of housing policy in British Columbia. Secondly, the results of a postal survey of 52 municipalities in British Columbia are presented, reflecting the range of local responses to the provincial housing legislation. Thirdly, case studies, derived from key informant interviews and document analysis in three municipalities (Burnaby, Sidney and Prince George) are presented. These provide more detailed illustrations of housing strategies in different geographical contexts. The research suggests that housing is a dynamic area of public policy in British Columbia, with a distinct pattern of innovation. In particular, some 'entrepreneurial' municipalities exhibited a shorter response time in reacting to the provincial legislation, and have adopted more innovative approaches to housing policy; these in turn, serve as examples to other jurisdictions. The wide range of innovative housing strategies adopted by local governments across the province, which are highlighted in this thesis, suggest that decentralization has ensured the potential for a greater fit between the preferences and needs of a particular locale. To the extent that it provides municipalities with the powers and resources they need, the decentralization policy allows communities to capitalize on their existing strengths and to more readily meet their housing needs. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The goals of this thesis are to identify the objectives for creating a Sustainable Community Network (SCN) within B.C., to acknowledge the various tools available to facilitate the network, and to develop illustrative models to guide those contemplating the establishment of a network. Three primary research methods were utilized in this project: literature reviews, group discussion in a focus workshop, and individual interviews. The literature reviewed focused on the fields of collaboration, networks in both technical and social capacities, and coalitions. Four objectives are identified as motives to create a SCN: to provide exchange mechanisms, to organise the "unformalized" field, to create a community of interest, and to be a vehicle for power, influence and empowerment. The emphasis at the beginning should be on building personal relationships over creating an electronic network. Other specific products and services are identified as beneficial for the stakeholders: newsletters, conferences, inventories, facilitation, and a clearinghouse for information. Alternatives for administering the network include a network manager, an administrative body, a governing body, and an intermediary broker. This research helps define networks within the field of planning. They may act as a support system, streamline efforts through collaboration or by reducing duplication of effort, act as a forum for monitoring and assessment activities, and be a source for on-going public participation. Three conceptual models are developed representing a range of possibilities for creating the network. The models are labeled the "Fundamental Network" at the basic level, the "Coalition Network", and the "Collaborative Network" at the most complex level. The need for a SCN is reconfirmed. The network should proceed from a "human scale" and develop the capabilities of the electronic network as computer literacy and technological capacity become generally available. Finally, it is recommended that the network should proceed slowly, building on community objectives and incorporating the diverse activities possible through collaboration as experience is gained. Further research is needed to clarify the potential for networks in planning and management, to better understand the evolving place for computer technology, and to monitor the effectiveness of the networks as they are implemented. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

This study examines how the systems of production of the commodity exporting industries of pre-1885 British Columbia contributed to the social formation of the region. Such industries provided the economic base for post-contact development and non-Native settlement of the region, mediated by the cultural values of immigrant and indigenous populations. The intent here is to synthesize a more inclusive model to clarify how these economic and cultural factors intersected to produce a distinct regional society. Beginning with Ian McKay’s suggestion to interpret the history of Canada as a process of naturalizing the liberal order, this study moves the analysis away from microstudies of individual industries or social groups in order to emphasize the way in which a broader vision became naturalized. This approach avoids some of the simple dichotomies of class and race that have informed much of the historiography of BC, in favour of a more nuanced analysis that emphasizes the negotiated process that leads to social consensus. Beginning with the merchant capitalist relations of the fur trade, and accelerating with the 1858 gold rush, BC became understood as a place that provided opportunities for economic and social mobility through participation in commodity exporting ventures. A consensus emerged that emphasized the producer ethic [the economic and cultural value of independent producers], and the creation of a meritocratic socio-political environment to support opportunities for achieved, rather than ascribed, social position. This attracted Euro-North American immigrants hoping to escape social restrictions or proletarianization by achieving independent producer status. Such a goal meant that these immigrants resisted waged labour, creating a chronic shortage that impeded industrial development. This was filled with Chinese immigrants or Aboriginal participants, attracted by the prospect of converting earnings into increased status in their originating societies. Combining the demand for labour with racial ideology, certain jobs were racialized, and BC industries were typified by split labour markets, with an upper echelon comprised of occupationally-mobile Euro-North American workers, and a lower echelon defined by race as well as skill, with little opportunity for mobility. In turn, this contributed to naturalizing ideology concerning race, class, and social position. The emphasis on the producer ethic contributed to an artificial division between “producers” and “agents,” with the former celebrated, while the latter, arguably more important to the systems of production by providing links to export markets, are portrayed less favourably. A commodity exporting, producer-centric variant of the liberal order was naturalized in nineteenth century BC, providing the logic for social and political development, and explaining how certain groups were valued, and either integrated into or excluded from hegemonic society. The degree to which individuals or groups conformed to the naturalized values of the emerging society largely determined their social position in the nineteenth century, and their subsequent treatment in the historiography. / Graduate

Social capital refers to the relationships between people that are productive: it can provide people with access to resources, ease transactions, and facilitate social and economic development at the community level. It has been conceptualized as both associations between people and attitudes of trust and cooperation that enable ties to be productive. Within communities, these attitudes underlie social cohesion, which can be defined as social integration and a propensity to cooperate and contribute to the community. Moreover, it is interaction and social engagement that develops social capital by creating and maintaining relationships and fostering social cohesion. This thesis presents an analysis of the development of social capital in coastal British Columbia by considering how the social participation of community members generates socially cohesive attitudes. Moreover, I empirically consider how this relationship varies for different people in different places and across two different types of participation. Formal participation refers to engagement in structured and organized group activities, such as rotary clubs or sports teams, while informal activities are casual irregular and often spontaneous, such as visiting with friends. Using a series of multiple linear regressions on survey data from rural coastal communities in British Columbia, I test how the relationship between these two types of participation and social cohesion varies according to people’s socio-demographic characteristics or the communities in which they live. Not only does this research consider who develops social capital in this way, but also whether the relationship between participation and social cohesion differ along these social lines. The results show that processes of social capital development reflect the characteristics and social environments of community members in coastal British Columbia. The variability shows that social capital development is embedded within particular contexts in ways can lead to inequalities in social capital. / Arts, Faculty of / Sociology, Department of / Graduate