CARM1 and skeletal muscle atrophy / Coactivator-associated arginine methyltransferase 1 (CARM1) is emerging as an important player in skeletal muscle biology. We sought to elucidate the role of CARM1 in mediating muscle mass and function, as well as in the induction and progression of the muscle atrophy program. To this end, we engineered CARM1 skeletal muscle-specific knockout (mKO) mice and employed distinct, but complementary models of muscle atrophy, including neurogenic muscle disuse, food deprivation, and the sarcopenia of aging. CARM1 mKO resulted in reduced muscle mass and myofiber cross-sectional area concomitant with dysregulated autophagic and atrophic signaling, which indicates the requirement of CARM1 for the maintenance of muscle biology. Interestingly, CARM1 deletion mitigated the progression of both denervation- and fasting-induced skeletal muscle atrophy as compared to wild-type (WT) mice. Key mechanistic findings revealed that CARM1 interacts with the master neuromuscular regulator AMPK and attenuates the expression and activity of its downstream autophagy and atrophy networks. Surprisingly, both male and female mKO mice have a significantly shorter lifespan versus their WT littermates, revealed by a ~50% reduction in survival at 22-months-old, which is equivalent to ~70 years-old in humans. As such, we observed significantly reduced functional outcomes of integrative physiology in old mKO mice compared to old WT animals, such as strength and motor performance. Taken together, these results indicate that skeletal muscle CARM1 is indispensable for maintaining muscle mass, function, and lifespan. Targeting the interplay between CARM1 and AMPK may offer a viable therapeutic strategy for combating life-limiting muscle wasting conditions. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / While muscle wasting and weakness remains a widespread issue, the mechanisms that control muscle atrophy are not entirely understood. Previous evidence suggests that coactivator-associated arginine methyltransferase 1 (CARM1) regulates skeletal muscle remodeling. However, the role of CARM1 during muscle atrophy is unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this work was to investigate the function of CARM1 during muscle wasting. We generated mice with CARM1 deleted in skeletal muscle and studied the impact of CARM1 deficiency on the loss of skeletal muscle mass during muscle disuse, food deprivation, and aging. We found that CARM1 is required to maintain muscle mass under basal conditions. Interestingly, knocking out CARM1 in muscle attenuated the progression of denervation- and fasting-induced atrophy. However, CARM1 deletion in muscle resulted in lower muscle strength and a reduced lifespan. CARM1 deficiency did not prevent aging-induced muscle loss. Overall, these findings advance our understanding of CARM1 in skeletal muscle biology.

PRMTs and exercise. / Protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs) play an important role in muscle. Using three unique but complementary approaches across human and mouse models, we examined PRMT biology during conditions of exercise-induced skeletal muscle plasticity. In response to acute and chronic cues for muscle plasticity in human muscle, an array of PRMT-specific increases and reductions in expression and activity were observed. Following this we generated coactivator-associated arginine methyltransferase 1 (CARM1) skeletal muscle-specific knockout (mKO) mice to further examine the role of this enzyme. We discovered that the rate of arginine methylation is equivalent to that of phosphorylation and ubiquitination in healthy muscle. CARM1 mKO displayed altered transcriptome and arginine methylproteomic signatures, confirming remodelled muscle contractile and neuromuscular junction characteristics, which foreshadowed the animal’s decreased acute exercise tolerance. Removal of CARM1 reduced voluntary wheel running (VWR) performance in a sex-dependent manner and eliminated the strong, positive correlation between VWR distance and mitochondrial number observed in WT mice. While CARM1 was shown to regulate AMPK-PGC-1α signaling during acute conditions of activity-induced muscle plasticity, molecular measures of PRMT biology were mostly unaffected by VWR and the removal of this enzyme. In conclusion, these results indicate that changes to expression and activity are PRMT-specific and reveal the broad impact of CARM1 in the maintenance and remodelling of skeletal muscle biology. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Skeletal muscle is a malleable tissue that can adapt to an array of physiological demands. Past research suggests that protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs) regulate skeletal muscle remodelling. However, their role in exercise-induced skeletal muscle plasticity is unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this work was to investigate PRMT biology during acute and chronic exercise. Our data demonstrate that in human muscle a variety of PRMT-specific alterations in expression and activity occur in response to cues for muscle plasticity. Using mice lacking coactivator-associated methyltransferase 1 (CARM1) in skeletal muscle, we studied the impact removal of CARM1 has on the acute and chronic muscle adaptations to training. Our data demonstrate that in addition to changing molecular signals and physiological function at rest, the deletion of CARM1 decreased acute exercise ability and altered chronic training performance in a sex-dependent manner. Altogether, these findings expand our knowledge of PRMTs in skeletal muscle biology.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a debilitating neuromuscular disorder characterized by insufficient SMN protein, resulting in motoneuron death. Initially, it was thought that motoneuronal death is followed by muscle atrophy; however, recent research is beginning to reveal possible muscle intrinsic defects, independent of motoneuron defects, in SMA. Previous studies have elucidated the cooperative involvement of CARM1, HuD and SMN in motoneurons, revealing HuD as a possible key player in the SMA phenotype. In this study, we focus on HuR, a ubiquitous family member of HuD, and the possibility that it plays a similar key role with CARM1 and SMN in skeletal muscle. Through the use of an shCARM1 stable line of C2C12s, we show that CARM1 is necessary for HuR functionality during differentiation. We further show that the methylation of HuR is necessary for its capability to translocate cytoplasmically during differentiation. We confirm an interaction between HuR and SMN, suggestive of a similar mechanism as was shown previously with HuD. In light of these findings, we next progressed to determine whether HuR is misregulated in an SMA mouse model. We report increased CARM1 levels in skeletal muscles of these mice. We further discovered that a deficiency in SMN protein impairs HuR upregulation and cytoplasmic translocation in response to HuR activation through sciatic nerve denervation. These findings were correlated with aberrant mRNA expression of HuR targets upon denervation. Taken together, these results show that HuR methylation is essential for proper myogenesis, and that the mechanism by which it acts likely requires sufficient SMN protein levels. In a deficiency of SMN, HuR shows signs of misregulation that may play a role in the inability to maintain or repair muscle in SMA.

L’oestradiol est l’une des hormones sécrétées par les ovaires. Non seulement impliquée dans le développement des organes sexuels chez les femmes, cette hormone aurait également un rôle important dans la carcinogénèse. En effet, l’oestradiol agit comme facteur de croissance dans le cancer, et c’est pourquoi la thérapie anti-hormone apparaît efficace dans le traitement du cancer du sein. Dans ce projet, nous avons étudié comment une seule molécule pouvait être aussi polyvalente, en modifiant certains cofacteurs altérant ainsi l’expression de certains gènes. L'Œstradiol agit sur l’ADN en recrutant le récepteur aux œstrogènes via les éléments hormonaux-sensibles. La liaison des œstrogènes sur leurs récepteurs induit un changement dans leur conformation et déclenche le recrutement de co-activateurs. Ces co-activateurs, tels CARM1 et CBP qui sont des enzymes épigénétiques majeures, sont recrutés par les gènes cibles des œstrogènes. Bien que ce mécanisme soit connu, la signification fonctionnelle du recrutement d’HAT et d’une méthyltransférase restait toujours non élucidée. Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai démontré que la protéine CBP est spécifiquement et exclusivement méthylée par CARM1 in vivo et qu’il existe plusieurs formes de méthyl-CBP qui recrutent et régulent différents gènes clefs dans la voie de signalisation des œstrogènes. Pour la première fois, nous avons défini un « code pour les modifications des co-activateurs », qui est impliqué dans la réponse endocrinienne et pourrait être dérégulé dans la progression tumorale du cancer du sein. Ces résultats mettent en évidence la régulation croisée entre les deux enzymes épigénétiques CARM1 et CBP comme une réponse essentielle aux œstrogènes et révèlent pour la première fois le mécanisme singulier par lequel les gènes cibles des œstrogènes sont régulés. / Estradiol is one of the hormones secreted by the ovaries. Not only involved in sexual development of women, this hormone would also have a significant role in carcinogenesis. Indeed estradiol acts as growth factor in cancer and this is why anti-hormone therapy is effective in breast cancer. In this project we investigated how a single molecule can be so diverse with respect to modulating certain cofactors and thus altering gene expression. Estradiol acts on DNA by recruiting the estrogen receptor on the hormone responsive elements. The binding of estrogen to its receptor induces a conformation change on the receptor which mediates the recruitment of co-activators. Coactivators such as CARM1 and CBP which are major epigenetic enzymes are recruited on estrogen target genes. Although this mechanism was known, the functional significance of recruiting a HAT and a methyltrasferase was still impending. In my thesis, I have shown that CBP is specifically and exclusively methylated by CARM1 in vivo and that there are several combinations of methyl CBP species which recruit and regulate distinct gene hubs in estrogen signaling. For the first time we define a “code for coactivator modifications”, which is involved in endocrine response and could be deregulated in tumor progression in breast cancer. These results identify the cross regulation between the two epigenetic enzymes CARM1 and CBP as a pivotal response to estrogen and reveal for the first time a distinct mechanism by which estrogen target genes are regulated.

CARM1 et PRMT1 sont 2 Protein Arginine MethylTransferases (PRMTs) impliquées dans la prolifération et dérégulées dans le cancer. La dimérisation est une caractéristique commune aux PRMTs. PRMT1 et CARM1 coopèrent dans la régulation des gènes mais il n'existe pas de données concernant un hétérodimère CARM1/PRMT1. Nous avons trouvé que PRMT1 et CARM1 sont surexprimées dans le cancer du poumon non à petites cellules et dans 2 lignées d'adénocarcinomes pulmonaires, A549 et H1299. Les siPRMT1 réduisent la prolifération cellulaire et facilitent la différentiation. Les siCARM1 produisent un effet similaire mais, comme ceci a déjà été décrit, suppriment l'expression de PRMT1 en plus de celle de CARM1. Ainsi, CARM1 peut-elle réduire la prolifération par un effet direct ou en inhibant PRMT1. Ce résultant souligne l'intérêt d'étudier la formation de l'hétérodimère CARM1/PRMT1. Nous avons trouvé que dans les cellules A549, CARM1 n'est pas phosphorylée sur la sérine 228, interagit avec PRMT1, méthyle les promoteurs de 2 gènes cibles (Sox2 et Nanog) et est localisée dans le noyau. Dans les cellules H1299, CARM1 est phosphorylée sur la sérine 228, n'interagit pas avec PRMT1, ne méthyle pas les promoteurs de Sox2 et Nanog et est localisée dans le cytoplasme. L'inhibition de la kinase MAP2K3 empêche la phosphorylation de CARM1 sur la sérine 228 et restaure l'interaction CARM1/PRMT1 dans les cellules H1299. En conclusion, l'invalidation de PRMT1 réduit la prolifération dans les cancers du poumon. L'invalidation de CARM1 réduit aussi la prolifération probablement par l'intermédiaire de la suppression de PRMT1. Nous suggérons que MAP2K3 est la kinase qui phosphoryle CARM1 sur la sérine 228 et que cette phosphorylation inhibe l'interaction CARM1/PRMT1. La formation de l'hétérodimère CARM1/PRMT1 pourrait constituer un moyen pour réguler l'activité de ces 2 enzymes / PRMT1 and CARM1 are 2 Protein Arginine MethylTransferases (PRMTs) implicated in cell proliferation and deregulated in cancer. Dimerisation is a conserved feature in the PRMT family. PRMT1 and CARM1 cooperate in gene regulation but CARM1/PRMT1 heterodimer is not yet characterised. We report that, PRMT1 and CARM1 are overexpressed in non-small cell lung cancer samples and in 2 lung adenocarcinoma cell lines, A549 and H1299. siPRMT1 reduce proliferation and promote differentiation. siCARM1 yield similar consequences but, as this was previously described, suppress PRMT1 expression in addition to CARM1 expression. Thus CARM1 might reduce proliferation by a direct effect or alternatively through PRMT1 suppression. This result reinforces the interest of investigating the CARM1/PRMT1 heterodimer formation. We found that in A549 cells, CARM1 is not phosphorylated at serine 228, interacts with PRMT1, methylates the promoter of 2 target genes (Sox2 and Nanog) and is localized in the nucleus. In H1299 cells, CARM1 is phosphorylated at serine 228, does not interact with PRMT1, does not methylate Sox2 and Nanog promoters and is localized in the cytoplasm. Inhibition of the kinase MAP2K3 prevents the phosphorylation of CARM1 at serine 228 and restores CARM1/PRMT1 interaction in H1299 cells. In conclusion, we propose that PRMT1 knock-down reduces proliferation in lung cancer. CARM1 knock-down reduces proliferation probably through the suppression of PRMT1. We suggest that MAP2K3 is the candidate kinase that phosphorylates CARM1 at serine 228 and that phosphorylation inhibits CARM1/PRMT1 interaction. CARM1/PRMT1 heterodimer formation might be a way of regulating the activities of these enzymes

Les "protéine arginine méthyltransférases" (PRMT) sont impliquées dans de nombreux processus cellulaires : transcription, maturation et transport des ARN, traduction, transduction du signal, réplication et réparation de l'ADN, et apoptose. Différents travaux ont montré que des dérégulations de ces mécanismes impliquant les PRMT peuvent induire certains cancers, faisant de ces enzymes de nouvelles cibles potentielles en chimiothérapie. Il s’avère donc crucial de comprendre le mode d’action des PRMT à l’échelle atomique, à la fois au niveau fondamental et pour le développement de nouveaux médicaments. Les travaux décrits ici s’intéressent à la protéine PRMT4/CARM1 et s’appuient sur des études structurales par bio-cristallographie, pour comprendre les mécanismes de la réaction de méthylation catalysée par CARM1 et découvrir des inhibiteurs spécifiques, mais aussi sur des études en solution, pour caractériser l’interaction entre CARM1 et ses substrats. / Protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs) are involved in several cellular mechanisms: transcription, RNA maturation and transport, translation, signal transduction, DNA replication and repair, and apoptosis. Different studies showed that deregulation of those mechanisms involving PRMTs can induce some cancers, making these enzymes new potential targets for chemotherapy. It is therefore crucial to understand the mode of action of PRMTs at the atomic scale, both at the fundamental level and for the development of new drugs. The studies described here focus on PRMT4/CARM1 and rely on structural studies by bio-crystallography, in order to understand the methylation mechanisms catalyzed by CARM1 and to discover specific inhibitors, but also on in vitro studies, to characterize the interaction between CARM1 and its substrates.

Les "protéine arginine méthyltransférases" (PRMT) sont impliquées dans de nombreux processus cellulaires : transcription, maturation et transport des ARN, traduction, transduction du signal, réplication et réparation de l'ADN, et apoptose. Différents travaux ont montré que des dérégulations de ces mécanismes impliquant les PRMT peuvent induire certains cancers, faisant de ces enzymes de nouvelles cibles potentielles en chimiothérapie. Il s'avère donc crucial de comprendre le mode d'action des PRMT à l'échelle atomique, à la fois au niveau fondamental et pour le développement de nouveaux médicaments. Les travaux décrits ici s'intéressent à la protéine PRMT4/CARM1 et s'appuient sur des études structurales par bio-cristallographie, pour comprendre les mécanismes de la réaction de méthylation catalysée par CARM1 et découvrir des inhibiteurs spécifiques, mais aussi sur des études en solution, pour caractériser l'interaction entre CARM1 et ses substrats.