La reconnaissance des cellules tumorales par le système immunitaire, appelée immunosurveillance, permet le contrôle de lacroissance des tumeurs voir dans certains cas leur élimination. Cependant, de nombreuses études d’exploration du système immunitaire dans le contrôle de la réponse antitumorale ont mis en évidence des mécanismes complexes d’échappement à cette immunosurveillance,avec par exemple pour les lymphocytes TCD8+ (LT CD8+) principal acteur de cette réponse, un défaut de migration, de reconnaissance des cellules tumorales ou d’activation au sein de la tumeur. Cette inhibition de fonction des LTCD8+, peut être liée à un phénomène appelé exhaustion, lié à l’expression à leur surface de molécules de costimulation inhibitrices telles que PD1, TIM-3, Lag3, CTLA-4. L’interaction de ces récepteurs avec leurs ligands engendre une perte de contrôle de la réponse antitumorale, favorisant alors la progression tumorale. Afin de lever ce phénomène d’exhaustion induit sur les LT CD8+ et restaurer la réponse antitumorale, plusieurs stratégies de traitements, visant à inhiber ces « checkpoints inhibiteurs » ont étédéveloppées. L’effet clé de la ciclosporine-A(CsA) repose sur la modulation de l’activité des lymphocytes T, ce qui explique son rôle dans la prévention du rejet de greffe. Cependant, il reste à déterminer si la CsA exerce d'autres effets sur le système immunitaire.Les évidences scientifiques montrent un effet paradoxal de la faible dosage de cyclosporine-A (fd-CsA). Ces résultats nous ont permis d’émettre l’hypothèse d’un rôle de la fd-CsA dans la modulation de la réponse antitumorale des LT CD8+, Nous avons pu observer à l’inverse, qu’à faible dose de ciclosporine-A, soit une dose équivalente entre 10 et 30 ng/mL, l’expression de PD1 était significativement diminuée à la surface des LT CD8+ activé. En revanche, à cette faible dose, aucun effet significatif sur la diminution d’expression du marqueur d’activation CD69 n’a été observé. Des expériences effectuées in vivo dans le modèle murin de mélanome B16F10 et MCA nous ont par ailleurs permis de montrer une réduction de la croissance tumorale chez les souris traitées par fd-CsA par rapport aux souris non traitées. En utilisant un modèle murin de fibrosarcome MCA, nous avons montré que nous restaurions in vivo une réponse immunitaire antitumorale et qu’un traitement de ces souris par fd-CsA en combinaison avec l’anti PDL-1 permettait une guérison après traitement, alors que l’anti PDL-1 seul n’avait pas d’effet. Cet effet novateur de la fd-CsA permet donc de visualiser de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques dans la réponse antitumorale qui pourraient bénéficier aux futurs patientsdiagnostiqués d’un cancer. / The recognition of tumor cells by the immune system, called immunosurveillance, allows the control of tumor growth or in some cases their elimination. However, numerous studies of the immune system in the control of the antitumor response have revealed complex mechanisms by means of which this immunosurveillance can be evaded. Examples of this occurrence are CD8+ T lymphocytes, the main element of this response are defective migration, tumor cell non-recognition or non-activation within the tumor. This inhibition of CD8+ T cell function may be related to a phenomenon called exhaustion, which may be a result of the expression on their surface of inhibitory costimulatory molecules such as PD1, TIM-3, Lag3, CTLA-4. The interaction of these receptors with their ligands causes a loss ofcontrol of the antitumor response, thus promoting tumor progression. To overcome this phenomenon of exhaustion induced in CD8+ T cells and restore the antitumor response, several treatment strategies aimed at inhibiting these "inhibitory checkpoints" have been developed. The key effect of cyclosporin-A (CsA) is modulation of T-cell activity, which explains its role in the prevention of transplantrejection. However, it remains to be determined whether CsA has other effects on the immune system. Preliminary results have allowed us to demonstrate the paradoxical effect of cyclosporin-A (CsA) in the antitumor response. Thus, these unexpected results have allowed us to hypothesize a role for Ld-CsA in modulating the antitumor response of CD8+ Tcells. We observed that Ld-CsA at equivalent dose between 10 and 30 ng/mL, significantly decreased PD1 expression at the activated CD8+ T cell surface. Furthermore, at this lowdose, no significant effect was observed on the expression of the CD69 activation marker. We have also shown that Ld-CsA increases the vaccine response in vivo. In vivo experiments with the murine B16F10 melanoma model and MCA fibrosarcoma have also shown areduction in tumor growth in mice treated with d-CsA compared to untreated mice. More recently, using a mouse model of MCA-OVAfibrosarcoma, we have shown that we can restore the in-vivo antitumor immune response and that the treatment of these mice by Ld-CsAin combination with the anti PDL-1, allowed tumor regression, whereas anti PDL-1 alone had no effect. This novel effect of Ld-CsA allows us therefore to visualize new therapeutic strategies for the antitumor response which may benefit future patients diagnosed with cancer.

Der Systemische Lupus Erythematodes (SLE) ist eine meist schwer verlaufende Autoimmunerkrankung, die jedes Organ betreffen kann. Trotz zahlreicher und intensiver Anstrengungen die Pathophysiologie des SLE aufzuklären, wird sie aktuell nur in ihren Grundzügen verstanden. Eine Vielzahl zellulärer und molekularer Auffälligkeiten wurden in verschiedenen Immunzellen von Patienten mit SLE beschrieben, wobei die gesteigerte Aktivierung von T und B Zellen ist ein Schlüsselmerkmal ist. Verschiedene Auffälligkeiten der T Zell Funktion wurden in den vergangenen Jahren berichtet, unter anderem die gesteigerte Expression und Aktivierung verschiedener Transkriptionsfaktoren, darunter cAMP Responsive Element Modulator (CREM)α und Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (Stat)3. Eine Rolle von CREMα bei der Entstehung von Effektor T Zell Phänotypen bei Patienten mit SLE wurde in Studien belegt. Die gesteigerte Expression von CREMα ist (zumindest teilweise) für die gesteigerte Expression von IL-17A und die reduzierte Expression von IL-2 verantwortlich, welche für die Pathogenese und die Entstehung von Gewebeschäden mitverantwortlich sind. Neben gut charakterisierten CD4+ Effektor T Zellen, spielen TCR+CD3+CD4-CD8-, sogenannte „doppelt negative“ (DN) T Zellen, eine Rolle in der Pathophysiologie des SLE. Die Zahl DN T Zellen ist im peripheren Blut von SLE Patienten gesteigert. DN T Zellen infiltrieren entzündete Gewebe, insbesondere die Nieren, wo sie IL-17A exprimieren und zu Gewebeschäden beitragen können. Da DN T Zellen durch den Verlust der Oberflächenexpression des CD8 Co-Rezeptors aus CD8+ T Lymphozyten hervorgehen können, stellte wir die Frage, ob CREMα an diesem Prozess beteiligt ist. In den vorliegenden Studien konnten wir zeigen, dass CREMα an hochkonservierte nichtkodierende Sequenzen des CD8 Gen Clusters bindet und den CD8B Promoter trans-reprimiert. CREMα stellt damit den ersten berichteten Transkriptionsfaktor dar, der zu trans-Repression von CD8 führt. Zudem co-rekrutiert CREMα die DNA Methyltransferase DNMT3a und die Histon Methyltransferase G9a an hochkonservierte nichtkodierende Elemente des CD8 Gen Clusters in CD8+ T Zellen. Hierdurch trägt CREMα zur Chromatinkondensation, folglich reduzierter CD8 Expression und letztendlich der Generierung von DN T Zellen bei. Da die Expression von CREMα sowohl in T Zellen von SLE Patienten als auch in T Zellen von MRL.lrp Mäusen gesteigert ist, könnten die beschriebenen Effekte auf die CD8 Expression eine Rolle für eine Reihe von Autoimmunerkrankungen spielen, die mit einer erhöhten Zahl von DN T Zellen einhergehen (z.B. Patienten mit Autoimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome; ALPS). Proteine der Stat Transkriptionsfaktor Familie spielen eine Rolle während der Differenzierung und Aktivierung von Effektor T Zellen. Speziell die Transkriptionsfaktoren Stat3 und Stat5 scheinen für das Gleichgewicht zwischen Th17 Effektor Phänotypen (Stat3) und regulatorischen T Zellen (Stat5) von Bedeutung zu sein. Stat3 spielt eine wichtige Rolle bei der Differenzierung von IL-17A produzierenden CD4+ Th17 Helferzellen, welche eine pathophysiologische Rolle beim SLE spielen. Durch die Aktivierung der Expression weiterer Zytokine (z.B. IL-6, IL-10, und IL-21) in verschiedenen T Lymphozytenpopulationen, sind die Effekte von Stat3 nicht auf die genannten T Helferzellpopulationen beschränkt. Interleukin-10 ist ein immunregulatorisches Zytokin, welches neben seinen anti-inflammatorischen Effekten auch zur Aktivierung von B Lymphozyten und Antikörperproduktion beiträgt. Eine mögliche Pathophysiologische Rolle von IL-10 beim SLE ergibt sich aus gesteigerten IL-10 Serumspiegeln in SLE Patienten und nicht zuletzt aus einer kleinen Kohorte von SLE Patienten, die klinische Besserung nach therapeutischer Blockade von IL-10 erfahren hatte. Wie IL17A, wird auch IL10 durch Transkriptionsfaktoren der Stat Familie kontrolliert. Da die Expression und Aktivierung von Stat3 in T Zellen von SLE Patienten gesteigert ist, untersuchten wir am Beispiel des IL10 Gens Effekte von fehlregulierter Stat Aktivierung. Wir konnten zeigen, dass Stat3 und Stat5 das IL10 Gen durch trans-Aktivierung und die Induktion von epigenetischen Remodeling durch die Co-Rekrutierung von p300 regulieren. Der transkriptionelle Co-Aktivator p300 besitzt Histon Azetyltransferase Aktivität und induziert die „Öffnung“ des IL10 Gens. In T Zellen von SLE Patienten ist die Rekrutierung von Stat3 durch reduzierte DNA Methylierung am proximalen Promoter und einem intronischen Enhancer (I-SRE) erleichtert. Zudem verdrängt Stat3 den Transkriptionsfaktor Stat5 von einem Bindungselement im 4. Intron (I-SRE) des IL10 Gens. Zusammen führen diese Ereignisse zu gesteigerter Expression von IL-10 in T Zellen von SLE Patienten. Da die Aktivierung von Stat3 zu gesteigerter Expression einer Reihe von Zytokinen beträgt und die Stat3 Aktivierung sowohl beim SLE als auch bei anderen Autoimmunerkrankungen gesteigert ist, könnten die beschriebenen Effekte nicht nur auf die Expression von IL-10 in T Zellen von SLE Patienten beschränkt sein. Unsere Beobachtungen unterstreichen das Potenzial fehregulierte Transkriptionsfaktoren, speziell CREMα und Stat3, als Biomarker und/oder therapeutische Ziele beim SLE zu nutzen. Es bleibt jedoch an dieser Stelle noch zu klären, ob CREMα und/oder Stat3 auch Chromatin Remodeling während der physiologischen Generierung von DN oder CD4+ T Helfer Zellen kontrollieren oder ob sie ausschließlich oder zumindest in gesteigertem Maße an der pathologischen Generierung von Effektor T Zellen bei Autoimmunerkrankungen beteiligt sein. Die translationale Bedeutung unserer Beobachtungen wird durch den neuerdings begonnenen Einsatz von JAK/Stat Inhibitoren in der Therapie verschiedener Autoimmunerkrankungen unterstrichen. / Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a severe autoimmune disease that can affect any organ of the human body. Despite intense efforts towards a better understanding, the pathophysiology of SLE remains largely unknown. A number of cellular and molecular anomalies have been reported in immune cells from patients with SLE, and increased activation of B and T lymphocytes are considered hallmarks of the disease. Several alterations to T cell function and phenotypes have been reported, including the increased expression of the transcription factors cAMP response element modulatorα (CREM α) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3). A role of CREMα in the generation of effector T cells has been demonstrated. Enhanced expression of CREMα is (at least partially) responsible for increased expression of IL-17A and reduced expression of IL-2 from effector T cells in SLE patients; and altered cytokine expression contributes to the pathophysiology and tissue damage. In addition to well-characterized effector CD4+ T cells, TCR+CD3+CD4-CD8-, so-called “double negative” (DN) T cells, also play a role in the pathophysiology of SLE. Increased numbers of DN T cells in the peripheral blood of SLE patients invade inflamed tissues, including the kidneys, where they produce IL-17A and contribute to tissue damage. Double negative T cells can derive from CD8+ T cells through the down-regulation of CD8 co-receptor expression. Thus, we asked whether CREMα may be involved in this process. In the studies presented here, we demonstrate that CREMα recruits to highly conserved non-coding sequences of the CD8 gene cluster and trans-represses the CD8B promoter. Thus, CREMα is the first reported transcription factor that negatively regulates CD8 expression. Furthermore, CREMα co-recruits DNA methyltransferase (DNMT)3a and histone methyltransferase G9a to highly conserved regions within the CD8 cluster in CD8+ T cells. Through these interactions, CREMα induces chromatin condensation, reduced CD8 expression, and the generation of DN T cells. Since CREMα expression is greater in T cells from SLE patients and lupus-prone MRL.lpr mice, the reported effects may play a role in several autoimmune disorders that are characterized by increased numbers of DN T cells (such as autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome; ALPS). Stat family transcription factors play a role during the differentiation and activation of T cells. Particularly Stat3 and Stat5 appear to be of central importance to the balance between effector Th17 phenotypes (Stat3) and regulatory T cells (Stat5). Stat3 is involved in the generation of IL-17A producing CD4+ Th17 cells, which contribute to tissue damage. Through the induction of cytokines other than IL-17A (e.g. IL-6, IL-10, IL-21), effects of Stat3 are not limited to individual T helper cell populations. Interleukin-10 is an immune-regulatory cytokine. In addition to anti-inflammatory effects, IL-10 is involved in the activation of B lymphocytes and induces immunoglobulin production. Increased IL-10 serum levels in SLE patients and a cohort of SLE patients that clinically responded to therapeutic blockade of IL-10 suggest a pathophysiological role for IL-10 in the disease. As with IL17A, the IL10 gene is regulated by Stat transcription factors. Since expression and activation of Stat3 are increased in T cells from patients with SLE, we investigated effects of dysbalanced Stat activation on the IL10 gene. In the presented study, we demonstrate that Stat3 and Stat5 trans-activate IL10 and induce epigenetic remodeling through co-recruitment of p300. The transcriptional co-activator p300 functions as histone acetyltransferase and induced epigenetic “opening” of the IL10 gene. In T cells from SLE patients, recruitment of Stat3 is enhanced by reduced levels of DNA methylation of the proximal promoter and an intronic enhancer, harboring a Stat responsive element (I-SRE). Stat3 replaces the transcription factor Stat5 at I-SRE in a potentially competitive manner. Altogether, these effects result in increased expression of IL-10 in T cells from patients with SLE. Activation of Stat3 induces the expression of a number of cytokines. Since Stat3 activation is enhanced in several autoimmune/inflammatory disorders, including SLE, we concluded that Stat3-mediated effects on gene expression are most likely not limited to just IL-10 expression in SLE. The herewith reported observations suggest high potential for the application of dysregulated transcription factor networks, particularly CREMα and Stat3, as biomarkers and/or molecular targets for future therapeutic interventions in SLE. However, it remains to be investigated whether and to what extent CREMα and/or Stat3 are involved in chromatin remodeling during the physiological generation of DN and CD4+ T helper cell subsets, or whether they contribute exclusively to the generation of effector T cell phenotypes in SLE and other autoimmune/inflammatory disorders. The translational importance of our observations is underscored by the recently initiated application of JAK/Stat inhibitors in the treatment of autoimmune/inflammatory conditions.

L’activation des lymphocytes T (LT) CD8 naïfs mène à leur différenciation en deux sous-populations d'effecteurs, les SLEC (short-lived effector cells) et MPEC (memory precursor effector cells). Après contrôle de l’infection, les SLEC meurent par apoptose tandis que les MPEC deviennent des cellules mémoires qui protègent contre la réinfection. Peu de choses sont connues sur le rôle des mécanismes post-traductionnels, tel que la déubiquitination lors de la différenciation des LT CD8+. La déubiquitinase (DUB) BAP1 joue un rôle clé dans la différenciation thymique et dans le maintien des populations de LT matures. Elle interagit avec plusieurs partenaires comme YY1 et EZH2 dans des cellules autres que les LT. Certains de ces partenaires ont des rôles importants dans la biologie des LT CD8 notamment en contexte infectieux suggérant que BAP1 régule la réponse des LT CD8+ lors d’une infection. Afin de tester cela, des LT CD8 OT-I spécifiques pour le peptide ovalbumine dans lesquelles BAP1 a été surexprimé ont été transférés dans des souris infectées avec la bactérie Listeria monocytogenes codant pour l’ovalbumine (LM-OVA). Nos résultats au pic de la réponse démontrent un défaut de l’expansion clonale des LT CD8+, de la différenciation en SLEC et une augmentation de la différenciation en MPEC. Nous observons aussi une augmentation de la différenciation en LT centrale mémoire (TCM) au stade mémoire. Finalement, nous évaluerons aussi l’impact de la délétion de Bap1 dans la réponse des LT CD8+. Cela contribuera à une meilleure compréhension du rôle de l’ubiquitination dans la biologie des LT CD8+ dont l’importance est centrale dans la réponse face aux infections et au cancer. / Following antigen recognition, naive CD8+ T cells expand massively and differentiate into effector cells. After pathogen clearance, the short-lived effector cells (SLECs) die while memory precursor effector cells (MPECS) persist and differentiate into memory T cells to confer long-term protection against reinfection. The transcriptional network controlling the SLEC/MPEC differentiation is well characterized but little is known about the role of posttranslational modifications, such as deubiquitination, in this process. The deubiquitinase BAP1 interacts with multiple partners including YY1 and EZH2 that are important for CD8+ T cell response. BAP1 has been shown to participate in thymic differentiation and in the maintenance of mature peripheral T cells. However, the function of BAP1 during CD8+ T cell response to infection is unknow. To address this, we overexpressed BAP1 wild type (WT) in ovalbumin-specific (OT-I) CD8+ T cells by retroviral transduction and analysed their response after adoptive transfer into mice infected with Listeria monocytogenes encoding ovalbumin. The overexpression of BAP1 WT severely reduced CD8+ T cell expansion, SLEC differentiation and functionality. It also induces enhanced MPEC differentiation. In fact, we observed an increase in central memory CD8 T cell (TCM) differentiation 30 days following infection. Finally, we confirmed the presence of key partners of BAP1 complex in activated and naïve CD8+ T cells. As next steps, we will analyse the impact of BAP1-deficiency in CD8+ T cell response to infection. This will contribute to a better understanding of the role of deubiquitination in CD8+ T cell response

La grippe est une infection respiratoire causée par le virus influenza, ayant d'importants impacts socio-économiques.La grande capacité mutagénique de ce virus nous oblige à développer notre arsenal pharmacologique vu l'augmentation du nombre de résistances aux antiviraux. Ce projet propose d'utiliser des médicaments accessibles et disponibles pour le traitement de diverses maladies qui sont susceptibles de limiter la propagation virale en ciblant des voies cellulaires essentielles pour la réplication virale (acidification endosomales et niveaux de calcium cellulaire). Les résultats obtenus ont démontré que l'utilisation d'agents lysosomotropes alcalinisants et de modulateurs du calcium inhibait de façon significative la réplication virale.La sensibilité des souches à ces traitements était les suivantes : H1N1 et H3N2 adaptées à la souris, H1N1 humaine, H1N1 porcine et H5N1 et N5N2 [i.e. H5N2] aviaire. Des concentrations plus élevées étaient nécessaires pour un traitement post-infection.La combinaison de traitements entre eux ou avec l'oseltamivir (inhibiteur de la neuraminidase) ont démontré un effet inhibiteur additif significatif. L'inhibition de l'induction de la polymérase acide virale tôt dans l'infection a indiqué que les traitements empêchent le relâchement du génome viral dans la cellule. In vivo, seule la chloroquine (50 mg/kg/jr) inhibait significativement la réplication virale pulmonaire. Néanmoins cette section du projet soutient l'idée d'exploiter des mécanismes cellulaires cruciaux pour le virus afin de développer de nouveaux traitements antiviraux. L'oseltamivir réduit la réplication du virus influenza et l'inflammation excessive dans les poumons durant l'infection. Cependant, les effets du traitement antiviral et d'une réduction de la dose infectieuse, suite aux traitements ou lors d'une infection avec une faible dose infectieuse sur la réponse immune sont mal connus.La seconde partie du projet soutient que malgré les réductions de la sévérité de l'infection et de la réplication virale pulmonaire observées, la réponse immune adaptative T CD8[indice supérieur +] permettrait la génération de cellules mémoires conférant une immunité secondaire hétérotypique. Les résultats obtenus ont démontré qu'une réduction de la charge virale pulmonaire diminuait le recrutement de cellules de l'immunité innée et de lymphocytes T CD8[indice supérieur +] spécifiques au virus au site d'infection, comparativement à forte charge virale pulmonaire.La génération des lymphocytes T CD8[indice supérieur +] dans les organes lymphoïdes secondaires n'était pas affectée. Ces deux situations ont diminué la persistance de la population mémoire dans les poumons ce qui diminue la protection des souris lors de l'infection secondaire. Notre étude aurait donc démontré qu'une diminution de la charge virale pulmonaire pourrait avoir d'importantes conséquences négatives sur la génération de la réponse immune adaptative et mémoire.

Résumé : L’IL-7 et l’IL-15 sont des cytokines impliquées dans l’homéostasie des lymphocytes T CD8 naïfs et mémoires respectivement. Lors d’une réponse immunitaire, certaines cytokines pro-inflammatoires, comme l’IL-6 et l’IL-21, sont produites par les cellules du système immunitaire inné. Nous avons observé que certaines cytokines de ces deux groupes (homéostasie et pro-inflammatoires), peuvent avoir un effet synergique sur la fonction des lymphocytes T CD8. Spécifiquement, l’incubation des lymphocytes T CD8 naïfs avec l’IL-6 ou l’IL-21, en présence d’IL-7 ou d’IL-15 cause une forte prolifération qui est indépendante de l’antigène. De plus, la combinaison d’IL-15 avec l’IL-6 ou l’IL-21 entraîne une prolifération préférentielle des lymphocytes T mémoires, tandis que la combinaison avec l’IL-7 entraîne une prolifération des lymphocytes T naïfs. La stimulation des lymphocytes T CD8 avec l’IL-6 ou l’IL-21, en présence d’IL-7 ou d’IL-15, entraîne une augmentation de la phosphorylation en tyrosine de STAT5 ainsi qu’une augmentation de liaison à l’ADN. Nous avons étudié l’effet d’une pré-stimulation des cellules T CD8 naïves par les cytokines synergiques sur leur réponse subséquente à un antigène. Nous avons observé qu’une pré-stimulation avec l’IL-6 ou l’IL-21, en présence d’IL-7 ou d’IL-15, même pour une courte durée de 24 heures, augmente leur sensibilité aux antigènes, entraînant une robuste prolifération et une forte augmentation de cytotoxité spécifique à l’antigène gp33. Nous avons observé que les cytokines pro-inflammatoires en combinaison avec l’IL-7 induisent une augmentation accrue de la prolifération chez les lymphocytes T CD8 exprimant un TCR transgénique de forte affinité (P14), ainsi que les cellules exprimant un TCR de faible affinité (H-Y). De plus, la combinaison synergique de cytokines entraîne une forte expression du récepteur de l’IL-2R[gamma] (CD132), ainsi qu’une augmentation de la production d’IL-2 après stimulation antigénique. Une forte augmentation de l’expression de CD8 et de CD45, ainsi qu’une diminution drastique de l’expression de CD5 peut expliquer l’augmentation de l’avidité fonctionnelle du TCR suite à une stimulation avec les combinaisons de cytokines synergiques. La stimulation des lymphocytes T CD8 avec les combinaisons de cytokines, induit une augmentation de la phosphorylation de LAT ainsi qu‘AKT. Cependant, la stimulation subséquente du CD3 n’entraîne pas d’augmentation de la phosphorylation de LAT ainsi qu’AKT chez les lymphocytes T CD8 pré-stimulés avec les combinaisons de cytokines. Nous avons aussi observé que les lymphocytes T CD8 stimulés avec les combinaisons de cytokines augmentent l’expression de CD62L, ce qui peut favoriser leur migration vers les ganglions lymphatiques. En conclusion, la production de cytokines pro-inflammatoires (IL-6, IL-15, IL-21) par les cellules du système immunitaire inné lors d’une infection ou d’une inflammation, ainsi que la présence constitutive d’IL-7, peuvent stimuler la prolifération et l’activation des lymphocytes T CD8 de façon non spécifique à l’antigène. Cette stimulation entraîne une augmentation de l’avidité fonctionnelle de leur TCR causant ainsi une forte prolifération ainsi que l’acquisition de fonctions effectrices spécifiques. Cette liaison entre le système immunitaire inné et adaptatif, médiée par les cytokines pro-inflammatoires et les cytokines homéostatiques joue un rôle très important dans l’élimination des pathogènes ainsi que dans le développement de maladies auto-immunitaires. / Abstract : Homeostasis of naive and memory CD8[superscript +] T lymphocytes is dependent on two cytokines IL-7 and IL-15, respectively. During an immune response to an infection, cells of the innate immune system produce several pro-inflammatory cytokines. We have observed that these two groups of cytokines, namely proinflammatory and homeostatic, can have a synergistic effect on CD8 T lymphocytes. Specifically, incubation of naive CD8 T cells with IL-6 or IL-21 in the presence of IL-7 or IL-15 induced strong proliferation in an antigen independent manner. While the combination of IL-6 or IL-21 with IL-15 induced strong proliferation of memory CD8 T cells, naïve CD8 T cells responded better to the combination with IL-7. These stimulatory cytokine combinations elicited strong STAT5 phosphorylation and it’s binding to DNA in CD8 T cells. We investigated the effect of priming CD8 T cells with the synergistic combination of IL-6 or IL-21 and IL-7 on their subsequent response to antigen. We observed that cytokine priming for only 24 hours enhanced their sensitivity to antigen, resulting in strong proliferation, effectors functions and cytotoxicity. These effects were observed with CD8 T cells expressing transgenic TCR with strong (P14) or weak (H-Y) affinity towards cognate peptide antigens. Priming CD8 T cells with the synergistic combination of cytokines increased the expression of IL-2 receptor gamma (CD132) and augmented the production of IL-2 when stimulated with antigen. These cells also expressed elevated levels of CD8 and CD45, as well as down modulate CD5, and these events may underlie the increased TCR avidity. Stimulation of CD8 T cells with the synergistic combination of cytokines induced phosphorylation of LAT and AKT. However, subsequent TCR stimulation did not further increase these phosphorylation events. We have observed that C D8 T cells primed with the synergistic combinations of cytokines up regulated CD62L, which could promote their migration through lymph nodes. In conclusion, inflammatory cytokines such as (IL-6, IL-15, IL-21) secreted by cells of the innate immune system during an infection or non-infectious inflammation, and basal levels of the homeostatic cytokine IL-7 can act in synergy with inflammatory cytokines to activate CD8 T lymphocytes in an antigen independent manner. This stimulation also results in an increase in the functional avidity of their TCR, as indicated by strong antigen responsiveness with increased proliferation and display of effectors functions. This connection between the innate and adaptive system mediated by inflammatory cytokines may play an important role in pathogen clearance and possibly in the development of autoimmune diseases.

<p>CD8+ T cells are associated with long term control of virus replication to low or undetectable levels in a population of HIV+ therapy-naïve individuals known as virus controllers (VCs; <5000 RNA copies/ml and CD4+ lymphocyte counts >400 cells/µl). These subjects' ability to control viremia in the absence of therapy makes them the gold standard for the type of CD8+ T-cell response that should be induced with a vaccine. Studying the regulation of CD8+ T cells responses in these VCs provides the opportunity to discover mechanisms of durable control of HIV-1. Previous research has shown that the CD8+ T cell population in VCs is heterogeneous in its ability to inhibit virus replication and distinct T cells are responsible for virus inhibition. Further defining both the functional properties and regulation of the specific features of the select CD8+ T cells responsible for potent control of viremia the in VCs would enable better evaluation of T cell-directed vaccine strategies and may inform the design of new therapies. </p><p>Here we discuss the progress made in elucidating the features and regulation of CD8+ T cell response in virus controllers. We first detail the development of assays to quantify CD8+ T cells' ability to inhibit virus replication. This includes the use of a multi-clade HIV-1 panel which can subsequently be used as a tool for evaluation of T cell directed vaccines. We used these assays to evaluate the CD8+ response among cohorts of HIV-1 seronegative, HIV-1 acutely infected, and HIV-1 chronically infected (both VC and chronic viremic) patients. Contact and soluble CD8+ T cell virus inhibition assays (VIAs) are able to distinguish these patient groups based on the presence and magnitude of the responses. When employed in conjunction with peptide stimulation, the soluble assay reveals peptide stimulation induces CD8+ T cell responses with a prevalence of Gag p24 and Nef specificity among the virus controllers tested. Given this prevalence, we aimed to determine the gene expression profile of Gag p24-, Nef-, and unstimulated CD8+ T cells. RNA was isolated from CD8+ T-cells from two virus controllers with strong virus inhibition and one seronegative donor after a 5.5 hour stimulation period then analyzed using the Illumina Human BeadChip platform (Duke Center for Human Genome Variation). Analysis revealed that 565 (242 Nef and 323 Gag) genes were differentially expressed in CD8+ T-cells that were able to inhibit virus replication compared to those that could not. We compared the differentially expressed genes to published data sets from other CD8+ T-cell effector function experiments focusing our analysis on the most recurring genes with immunological, gene regulatory, apoptotic or unknown functions. The most commonly identified gene in these studies was TNFRSF9. Using PCR in a larger cohort of virus controllers we confirmed the up-regulation of TNFRSF9 in Gag p24 and Nef-specific CD8+ T cell mediated virus inhibition. We also observed increase in the mRNA encoding antiviral cytokines macrophage inflammatory proteins (MIP-1&alpha;, MIP-1&alpha;P, MIP-1&beta;), interferon gamma (IFN-&gamma;), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and recently identified lymphotactin (XCL1). </p><p>Our previous work suggests the CD8+ T-cell response to HIV-1 can be regulated at the level of gene regulation. Because RNA abundance is modulated by transcription of new mRNAs and decay of new and existing RNA we aimed to evaluate the net rate of transcription and mRNA decay for the cytokines we identified as differentially regulated. To estimate rate of mRNA synthesis and decay, we stimulated isolated CD8+ T-cells with Gag p24 and Nef peptides adding 4-thiouridine (4SU) during the final hour of stimulation, allowing for separation of RNA made during the final hour of stimulation. Subsequent PCR of RNA isolated from these cells, allowed us to determine how much mRNA was made for our genes of interest during the final hour which we used to calculate rate of transcription. To assess if stimulation caused a change in RNA stability, we calculated the decay rates of these mRNA over time. In Gag p24 and Nef stimulated T cells , the abundance of the mRNA of many of the cytokines examined was dependent on changes in both transcription and mRNA decay with evidence for potential differences in the regulation of mRNA between Nef and Gag specific CD8+ T cells. The results were highly reproducible in that in one subject that was measured in three independent experiments the results were concordant. </p><p>This data suggests that mRNA stability, in addition to transcription, is key in regulating the direct anti-HIV-1 function of antigen-speci&#64257;c memory CD8+ T cells by enabling rapid recall of anti-HIV-1 effector functions, namely the production and increased stability of antiviral cytokines. We have started to uncover the mechanisms employed by CD8+ T cell subsets with antigen-speci&#64257;c anti-HIV-1 activity, in turn, enhancing our ability to inhibit virus replication by informing both cure strategies and HIV-1 vaccine designs that aim to reduce transmission and can aid in blocking HIV-1 acquisition.</p> / Dissertation

The use of genome wide ENU mutagenesis screening has uncovered vast numbers of novel genes involved in the control of the immune system. This thesis describes the characterization of a novel mutant, Captain Morgan (CPM), originally identified in an immunization screen designed to evaluate both the initial antibody response to antigen and the ability to sustain antibody production. Mapping of this mutant lead to the identification of a single base pair mutation in a novel guanine nucleotide exchange factor, dedicator of cytokinesis 8 (DOCK8). The mutation was found to result in altered gene splicing of the DOCK8 protein leading to the truncation of the protein and loss of catalytic function. The importance of understanding the role of DOCK8 in host immunity has been recently underlined by the discovery that cohorts of patients suffering from autosomal recessive forms of hyper-IgE syndrome have loss-of-function or deletions in this novel guanine nucleotide exchange factor. Disease in these patients is characterised by recurrent viral and bacterial infections mainly of the skin and lungs, with reduced levels of peripheral CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in the blood of patients. Patients also have high levels of IgE and eosinophilia in the blood and are highly atopic with increased prevalence of allergic diseases including asthma. Loss of DOCK8 function results in a number of phenotypes in CPM mice, which may help understand the immunodeficiency syndrome experienced by DOCK8 deficient patients. CPM mice, like DOCK8 deficient patients, are lymphopenic with losses of both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in the blood and secondary lymphoid organs. Challenge of CPM mice with modified vaccina virus (MVA) and influenza strain X31 demonstrated normal primary anti-viral responses. However, similar to the loss of germinal centre B cells previously described in these mice, memory T cell responses were diminished, which may explain the susceptibility of DOCK8 deficient patients to recurrent infections. In addition to the loss of peripheral T cells, rare populations of lymphocytes such as invariant natural killer T cells (iNKT) were also reduced in the liver and thymus. Due to their roles in bacterial and viral responses and cancer immunosurveillance it is expected that loss of these cells will contribute to disease severity. Together these findings illustrate the importance of the ENU mutagenesis model for generating new mutants, which can enhance our understanding of mammalian genes and create disease models of human disease. Further characterization of DOCK8 deficiency and the molecular mechanisms of DOCK8 function will have important implications for disease diagnosis and ongoing treatment for patients.

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Human CD161 is protein that is expressed by most Natural Killer (NK) cells, of T cells (including both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ subsets), Natural Killer T (NKT) cells and immature thymocytes. CD161 is expressed on many of the T cell receptor (TCR) expressing cell types that “bridge” both the innate and the adaptive immune systems, including mucosal associated invariant T (MAIT) cells. Changes in expression levels of CD161 in peripheral blood or tissue have been seen in multiple disease states such as: HIV, tuberculosis, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis. However, the functional role of CD161 on T cells was unclear. Therefore, this thesis explores the impact of CD161 ligation on CD8⁺ T cells. CD161 surface expression was seen to be significantly downregulated upon ligation with its receptor (LLT1) or cross-linked by anti-CD161 antibodies. Despite this, no clear functional impact of CD161 ligation was seen on resting CD8⁺ Va7.2⁺ cells. In contrast, ligation of CD161 on TCR stimulated CD8+ Va7.2+ cells resulted in increased IFNy and TNFa expression, cell activation and cytotoxicity. The increased cytotoxicity was potentially due to both an increase in the ability of the cells to degranulate and the expression of Granzyme B. Furthermore, ligation of CD161 induced an increase in activated Caspase 3 expression, indicating increased apoptosis. CD161 ligation over a prolonged period resulted in a decrease in proliferation. In total these results suggest that CD161 acts as a co-stimulatory molecule for T cells in the context of TCR activation.

Long-term non-progressors (LTPNs) in HIV infection target the structural protein Gag more frequently than individuals who progress to disease. However, the targeting of Gag per se does not always distinguish these two groups. Various factors have been put forth as likely explanations for this discrepancy including differences in the breadth and magnitude of observed responses, the HLA type of the host, the nature of the individual epitopes targeted and the ability of the virus to mutate these antigenic regions. The purpose of this thesis was to examine, using PBMCs isolated from HIV-2 infected LTNPs and CTL clones established in vitro, the clonotypic architecture and quality of an immunodominant HIV-2 Gag-specific response directed towards the HLA-B*3501-restricted epitope NPVPVGNIY (NY9: Gag245-253). The data presented in this thesis show that in spite of the expression of multiple inhibitory receptors on the surface of NY9-specific CD8+ T-cells, the NY9-response, which is a clonotypically 'private' response, bears a signature characterised by an increased cytotoxic sensitivity and the production of an array of cytokines, most notably IFN-γ and MIP-1β. Moreover, the results of this thesis indicate that the NY9-specific CD8+ T-cells are able to cross-recognise and lyse target B-cells pulsed with the corresponding HIV epitope PY9 and its variants at functional avidities (EC50) that are close to those exhibited by PY9-specific T-cells. However, not all mobilised TCR clonotypes are equally sensitive or equally cross-reactive. When individual CTL clones were studied it emerged that dominant clonotypes within the NY9-specific CD8+ T-cell memory pool possessed a higher avidity for tetramer and sensitivity for antigen than subdominant ones and demonstrated a better cross-reactive potential towards variants of the HIV-2 epitope. Hence, future HIV vaccine strategies may benefit from the inclusion of epitopes like NY9, the presentation of which appears to mobilise CD8+ T-cells with superior functional profiles.