Chemotactic cytokines, also known as chemokines, direct the migration of leukocytes following their interaction with seven transmembrane domain receptors that are part of the chemokine receptor family (Bachelerie et al. 2014). Chemokines are key players in cancer progression and the regulation of cancer-related inflammation. Atypical chemokine receptors (ACKRs) represent a subset of proteins belonging to the family of chemokine receptors but unable to signal through conventional cascades. ACKRs have recently emerged as important molecular players in health and diseases (Massara et al. 2016). They affect chemokine availability and function and impact many pathophysiological events, including the tumorigenesis process (Sjöberg et al. 2020). Chemerin is a nonchemokine chemoattractant for dendritic cell subsets, macrophages, and natural killer cells (Valérie Wittamer et al. 2003). Chemerin is the natural ligand for the receptors CMKLR1 (ChemR23), GPR1, and CCRL2. Chemerin expression is frequently downregulated in human tumors. The chemerin/CMKLR1 axis has been linked to immunity and inflammation as well as to cancer and angiogenesis. However, the exact function of CCRL2 in physiological and pathological processes remains poorly characterized. CCRL2 shares up to 40% homology with other C-C chemokine receptors in addition to many structural and functional similarities with the family of ACKRs, such as the lack of conventional G protein-mediated signaling and the inability to induce functional responses. CCRL2 is expressed by different cell types, such as endothelial cells and various leukocyte populations, and its expression is strongly upregulated by inflammatory signals. CCRL2 acts as a chemerin presenting molecule to cells expressing functional chemerin receptors (CMKLR1 and possibly GPR1) (Zabel et al. 2008). We have demonstrated that the expression of bioactive chemerin by tumor cells delays the growth of tumors in vivo, and a similar tumor growth delay is observed when chemerin is expressed in the skin of the host mice. In these tumors, the neoangiogenesis process is impaired, resulting in hypoxia, necrosis, and growth delay. A similar phenotype is observed for tumor cells growing in CCRL2 KO mice. In contrast, in a chemical carcinogenesis model (DMBA/TPA), the development of papillomas is accelerated in CCRL2 KO mice. In the present study, we studied the role of chemerin in angiogenesis and further investigated the effect of CCRL2 on the chemerin/CMKLR1 axis in tumorigenesis by testing tumoral cell lines overexpressing or invalidated for CCRL2. Moreover, we investigated whether CCRL2 is involved in the proliferation, migration, clonogenicity, and spheroid formation capacity of B16 melanoma and LLC carcinoma cells. Firstly, our results showed that chemerin exerted a strong anti-angiogenic effect in a bead sprouting assay, whereas we could not detect pro- or antiangiogenic properties of chemerin in various other assays. We demonstrated that the overexpression of CCRL2 significantly inhibited tumor growth in vivo, partially dependant on chemerin/CMKLR1 axis and independent of GPR1 expression. Also we showed that CCRL2 invalidation restored the tumor growth delay observed in CCRL2 KO mice. Importantly, we validated that CCRL2 expression in tumors affected the proportion of blood vessels, and resulted in a larger hypoxic and necrotic areas. CCRL2 expression did not impact the proliferation, migration and clonogenicity of B16 and LLC cells, but it strongly affected the spheroid formation capacity of B16 melanoma cells with a potential effect on the adhesion processes. Taken together, these results indicate that chemerin/CMKLR1/CCRL2 axis is significantly affecting the tumor growth by regulating angiogenesis, and CCRL2 is considered as a negative regulator of tumorigenesis. / Les cytokines chimiotactiques, également appelées chimiokines, dirigent la migration des leucocytes suite à leur interaction avec des récepteurs à sept domaines transmembranaires (Bachelerie et al. 2014). Les chimiokines sont des acteurs clés dans la progression du cancer et la régulation de l'inflammation liée au cancer. Les récepteurs atypiques de chimiokines (ACKR) représentent un sous-ensemble de protéines appartenant à la famille des récepteurs de chimiokines mais incapables de signaler via les cascades conventionnelles. Les ACKRs ont récemment été reconnus comme des acteurs moléculaires importants en physiologie et physiopathologie (Massara et al. 2016). Ils affectent la disponibilité et la fonction des chimiokines, et ont un impact sur de nombreux événements physiopathologiques, y compris le processus de tumorigenèse (Sjöberg et al. 2020). La chémérine est une protéine chimioattractante non apparentée aux chimiokines, active sur différentes populations leucocytaires, dont les cellules dendritiques, les macrophages et les cellules natural killer (Valérie Wittamer et al. 2003). La chémérine est le ligand naturel des récepteurs CMKLR1 (ChemR23), GPR1 et CCRL2. L'expression de la chémérine est fréquemment diminuée dans les tumeurs humaines. Le rôle de l’axe chémérine/CMKLR1 a été montré dans l'immunité et l'inflammation ainsi que le cancer et l'angiogenèse. Cependant, la fonction exacte de CCRL2 dans les processus physiologiques et pathologiques reste mal caractérisée. CCRL2 partage jusqu'à 40 % d'homologie avec d'autres récepteurs de C-C chimiokines, en plus de nombreuses similitudes structurelles et fonctionnelles avec la famille des ACKRs, telles que l'absence de signalisation médiée par les protéines G et l'incapacité d’induire des réponses fonctionnelles. CCRL2 est exprimé par différents types cellulaires, tels que les cellules endothéliales et diverses populations de leucocytes, et son expression est fortement augmentée par les signaux inflammatoires. CCRL2 agit uniquement en régulant les concentrations locales de chémérine, et en présentant le ligand à des cellules exprimant des récepteurs fonctionnels de la chémérine (CMKLR1 et potentiellement GPR1) (Zabel et al. 2008). Nous avons démontré que l'expression de la chémérine bioactive par les cellules tumorales retarde la croissance des tumeurs in vivo, et un retard similaire de la croissance tumorale est observé lorsque la chémérine est exprimée dans la peau des souris hôtes. Dans ces tumeurs, le processus de néoangiogenèse est altéré, entraînant une hypoxie, une nécrose et un retard de croissance.Un phénotype similaire de croissance retardée de lignées tumorales est observé chez les souris CCRL2 KO. En revanche, dans un modèle de cancérogenèse chimique (DMBA/TPA), le développement des papillomes est accéléré chez les souris CCRL2 KO. Dans la présente étude, nous avons étudié le rôle de la chémérine dans l'angiogenèse et l'effet de CCRL2 sur l'axe chémérine/CMKLR1 dans la tumorigenèse en testant des lignées cellulaires tumorales surexprimant ou invalidées pour CCRL2. De plus, nous avons étudié si CCRL2 est impliqué dans la prolifération, la migration, la clonogénicité et la capacité de formation de sphéroïdes de cellules tumorales de mélanome B16 et de carcinome pulmonaire (LLC). Premièrement, nos résultats ont montré que la chémérine exerçait un fort effet anti-angiogénique dans un test d’angiogenèse sur billes (bead sprouting assay), alors que nous n'avons pas pu détecter les propriétés pro- ou anti-angiogéniques de la chémérine dans divers autres tests. Nous avons démontré que la surexpression de CCRL2 inhibait significativement la croissance tumorale in vivo, un effet partiellement dépendant de l'axe chémérine/CMKLR1 et indépendant de l'expression de GPR1. Nous avons également montré que l'invalidation de CCRL2 dans les cellules tumorales supprimait le retard de croissance tumorale observé chez les souris CCRL2 KO. Surtout, nous avons validé que l'expression de CCRL2 dans les tumeurs affectait la proportion de vaisseaux sanguins et résultait en des zones hypoxiques et nécrotiques plus grandes. L'expression de CCRL2 n'a pas eu d'impact sur la prolifération, la migration et la clonogénicité des cellules tumorales B16 et LLC, mais elle a fortement affecté la capacité de formation de sphéroïdes par les cellules de mélanome B16 avec un effet potentiel sur les processus d'adhésion cellulaire. En conclusion, notre étude a permis de mettre en évidence les effets inhibiteurs de l'axe chemerin/CMKLR1/CCRL2 sur la croissance tumorale tout en régulant l'angiogenèse, et de montrer que CCRL2 peut être considéré comme un régulateur négatif de la tumorigenèse. / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques (Médecine) / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

yes / Metabolic syndrome is a global public health problem and predisposes individuals to obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Although the underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated, accumulating evidence has uncovered a critical role of adipokines. Chemerin, encoded by the gene Rarres2, is a newly discovered adipokine involved in inflammation, adipogenesis, angiogenesis and energy metabolism. In humans, local and circulating levels of chemerin are positively correlated with body mass index and obesity-related biomarkers. In this review, we discuss both peripheral and central roles of chemerin in regulating body metabolism. In general, chemerin is upregulated in obese and diabetic animals. Previous studies by gain or loss of function show an association of chemerin with adipogenesis, glucose homeostasis, food intake and body weight. In the brain, the hypothalamus integrates peripheral afferent signals including adipokines to regulate appetite and energy homeostasis. Chemerin increases food intake in seasonal animals by acting on hypothalamic stem cells, the tanycytes. In peripheral tissues, chemerin increases cell expansion, inflammation and angiogenesis in adipose tissue, collectively resulting in adiposity. While chemerin signalling enhances insulin secretion from pancreatic islets, contradictory results have been reported on how chemerin links to obesity and insulin resistance. Given the association of chemerin with obesity comorbidities in humans, advances in translational research targeting chemerin are expected to mitigate metabolic disorders. Together, the exciting findings gathered in the last decade clearly indicate a crucial multifaceted role for chemerin in the regulation of energy balance, making it a promising candidate for urgently needed pharmacological treatment strategies for obesity.

Yes / Chemerin is an adipokine involved in inflammation, adipogenesis, angiogenesis and energy metabolism, and has been hypothesized as a link between obesity and type II diabetes. In humans affected by obesity, chemerin gene expression in peripheral tissues and circulating levels are elevated. In mice, plasma levels of chemerin are upregulated by high-fat feeding and gain and loss of function studies show an association of chemerin with body weight, food intake and glucose homeostasis. Therefore, chemerin is an important blood-borne mediator that, amongst its other functions, controls appetite and body weight. Almost all studies of chemerin to date have focused on its release from adipose tissue and its effects on peripheral tissues with the central effects largely overlooked. To demonstrate a central role of chemerin, we manipulated chemerin signaling in the hypothalamus, a brain region associated with appetite regulation, using pharmacological and genetic manipulation approaches. Firstly, the selective chemerin receptor CMKLR1 antagonist α-NETA was administered i.c.v. to rats to test for an acute physiological effect. Secondly, we designed a short-hairpin-RNA (shRNA) lentivirus construct targeting expression of CMKLR1. This shRNA construct, or a control construct was injected bilaterally into the arcuate nucleus of male Sprague Dawley rats on high-fat diet (45%). After surgery, rats were maintained on high-fat diet for 2 weeks and then switched to chow diet for a further 2 weeks. We found a significant weight loss acutely and inhibition of weight gain chronically. This difference became apparent after diet switch in arcuate nucleus-CMKLR1 knockdown rats. This was not accompanied by a difference in blood glucose levels. Interestingly, appetite-regulating neuropeptides remained unaltered, however, we found a significant reduction of the inflammatory marker TNF-α suggesting reduced expression of CMKLR1 protects from high-fat diet induced neuroinflammation. In white and brown adipose tissue, mRNA expression of chemerin, its receptors and markers of adipogenesis, lipogenesis and brown adipocyte activation remained unchanged confirming that the effects are driven by the brain. Our behavioral analyses suggest that knockdown of CMKLR1 had an impact on object recognition. Our data demonstrate that CMKLR1 is functionally important for the central effects of chemerin on body weight regulation and neuroinflammation. / This work was funded in part by the Academy of Medical Sciences, the Wellcome Trust, the Government of Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy and the British Heart Foundation and Diabetes United Kingdom [SBF004/1063] (GH), the Society for Endocrinology Equipment Grant (GH, RD), the University of Bradford (GH, KP, SK) and Nottingham Trent University (RD).

Chemoattractant agents play a crucial role in the initiation of immune responses, by regulating the traffic and function of leucocyte populations. Their receptors are therefore considered as potential targets for the development of new therapies in the fields of cancer and inflammatory diseases. ChemR23, a previously orphan receptor discovered in the laboratory, is structurally related to receptors for chemoattractant agents. It is expressed on immature myeloid and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (mDCs and pDCs respectively), as well as on adipocytes, macrophages, NK and endothelial cells. Chemerin, the endogenous ligand of ChemR23, is abundant in various human samples originating from inflammatory diseases, including pleural effusions. Chemerin is secreted as an inactive precursor, prochemerin, and is activated by the removal of six or seven amino-acids from its carboxy-terminus by serine proteases, such as as cathepsin G and elastase. Chemerin acts as a chemoattractant agent of low nanomolar potency for macrophages, immature mDCs and pDCs. It is however more active on pDCs, in line with the higher expression of ChemR23 on these cells. pDCs possess important immunoregulatory properties in lung diseases, and their ability to secrete large amounts of type I interferon (IFN) upon viral infection makes them crucial players in anti-viral immunity.<p>According to these elements, and to the role of neutrophils in the physiopathology of many inflammatory lung diseases and in the generation of active chemerin, we began in 2007 to study the role of chemerin and its receptor ChemR23 in inflammatory lung diseases. We first characterized the mouse chemerin/ChemR23 system, and described that this system was very similar to the human one, in terms of distribution, pharmacology and functional properties. We then used wild type mice (WT) and mice invalidated for the receptor (ChemR23-/-) in various models of inflammatory lung diseases, including asthma, lung fibrosis, viral pneumonia, and acute lung injury. <p>Whereas the asthma and lung fibrosis models did not allow to demonstrate a significant role of the chemerin/ChemR23 system (possibly as a result of the lack of production of active chemerin in these models), infection by either the Pneumonia Virus of Mice (PVM), the mouse counterpart of human RSV, or by a murinized H1N1 influenza strain resulted in a significantly higher mortality rate in ChemR23-/- mice as compared to their WT counterparts. Using the PVM-induced pneumonia model, we observed that the excessive mortality of knock-out mice is caused by an inadequate and excessive innate immune response characterized by a massive recruitment of neutrophils to the lungs, associated with a delayed viral clearance and lower type I IFN synthesis. This latter observation suggested an impairment of pDC recruitment, according to the important contribution of pDCs to the production of type I IFNs in viral diseases, and the role of chemerin in the recruitment of these cells. We indeed confirmed a lower recruitment of pDCs in the lung of infected ChemR23-/- mice, as compared to WT mice. However, experiments of adoptive transfert and depletion of pDCs failed to proof a link between impaired pDC recruitment and the excessive morbidity and mortality observed in ChemR23-invalidated mice. <p>In parallel, we studied the role of the chemerin/ChemR23 system in the control of innate immune responses, by using a model of acute lung injury caused by the intra-tracheal instillation of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In this model, administration of recombinant chemerin together with LPS in WT mice resulted in a significant (about 50%) reduction of neutrophil recruitment to both lung parenchyma and airways. Assessment of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in broncho-alveolar lavage fluids confirmed this anti-inflammatory effect of chemerin, which was ChemR23-dependent, as the inflammatory response of ChemR23-/- mice was unaffected by chemerin. In our hands, chemerin does not modulate macrophage functions, in contrast to data recently published by other groups, attributing anti-inflammatory effects of chemerin or chemerin-derived peptide to the modulation of macrophage activation and phagocytosis. Other hypotheses that could take our observations into account are presently investigated, including an immunomodulatory role of chemerin on lung epithelial or endothelial cells, and/or the ChemR23-dependent recruitment of subtypes of macrophages or other myeloid cells endowed with immunosuppressive properties. <p>In conclusion, our studies characterized the mouse chemerin/ChemR23 system and highlighted the role of this system in the physiopathology of some inflammatory lung diseases. Our results suggest that the chemerin/ChemR23 system might be considered as a potential therapeutic target for the development of future anti-infectious and anti-inflammatory therapies, particularly for viral pneumonia, which represent a major public health problem, as well as for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) following severe acute lung injuries.<p> <p><p>Les agents chimioattractants jouent un rôle fondamental dans l’initiation des réponses immunes en régulant le trafic et la fonction des populations leucocytaires. Leurs récepteurs constituent dès lors des cibles d’intérêt pour le développement de traitements contre les maladies inflammatoires et le cancer. Le laboratoire d’accueil a identifié le récepteur ChemR23, exprimé à la surface des cellules dendritiques myéloïdes (mDCs) et plasmacytoïdes (pDCs) immatures, des macrophages, des cellules NK, des adipocytes, et des cellules endothéliales. Le ligand endogène du récepteur ChemR23, la chémérine, est présent en abondance dans divers échantillons pathologiques d’origine inflammatoire. La chémérine est produite sous la forme d'un précurseur inactif, la prochémérine, qui nécessite pour devenir active le clivage protéolytique de six ou sept acides aminés à son extrémité carboxy-terminale. La chémérine induit le chimiotactisme des macrophages et des DCs immatures, et en particulier des pDCs immatures en accord avec l’expression plus importante de ChemR23 par les pDCs. Les pDCs jouent un rôle immunorégulateur important en pathologie pulmonaire, en particulier dans la physiopathologie des pneumonies virales, par leur capacité à produire d’importantes quantités d’interféron (IFN) de type I.<p>Compte tenu de ces éléments et du rôle des polynucléaires neutrophiles dans de nombreuses pathologies pulmonaires, ainsi que dans la génération de chémérine active à partir de son précurseur, nous avons débuté en octobre 2007, l’étude du rôle de la chémérine et de son récepteur ChemR23 dans le contrôle des pathologies pulmonaires inflammatoires. Nous avons tout d’abord caractérisé le système chémérine/ChemR23 chez la souris et avons montré que ce système présentait des caractéristiques similaires à celles décrites chez l’homme, en termes de distribution, de pharmacologie et de propriétés fonctionnelles. <p>Ensuite, nous avons comparé des souris sauvages et invalidées pour le récepteur ChemR23 (ChemR23-/-) dans divers modèles de pathologies pulmonaires. Les modèles d’asthme et de fibrose pulmonaire induite par instillation de bléomycine ou de silice n’ont pas permis de mettre en évidence un rôle important du couple chémérine/ChemR23, peut-être en raison de l’absence de génération de forme active de chémérine dans ces modèles. En revanche, l’administration de deux agents viraux différents, le PVM (Pneumonia Virus of Mice), l’équivalent murin du RSV humain, et un virus de l’influenza H1N1 murinisé, a résulté en un taux de mortalité 40% plus élevé pour les souris ChemR23-/- par rapport à leurs homologues sauvages. En utilisant le modèle de pneumonie induite par le PVM, nous avons montré que cette différence de mortalité est causée par une réponse immune inappropriée et excessive, associée à une réduction de l’élimination du virus, ainsi qu’à un déficit de synthèse d’IFN de type I. Les pDCs, dans un contexte d’infection virale, sont capables de synthétiser d’importantes quantités d’IFN de type I, et nous avons mis en évidence un déficit relatif de recrutement en pDCs chez les souris ChemR23-/- infectées. Néanmoins, les expériences de transfert adoptif et de déplétion de pDCs n’ont pas permis de lier ce défaut de recrutement à l’excès de morbidité et de mortalité observé chez les souris ChemR23-/- infectées. <p>En parallèle, le rôle de ce couple ligand-récepteur dans le contrôle des réponses immunitaires innées a été étudié dans un modèle de pneumopathie aiguë induite par instillation intra-trachéale de lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Dans ce modèle, l’administration simultanée de chémérine recombinante avec le LPS entraîne chez les souris sauvages une diminution significative (environ 50%) du nombre de polynucléaires neutrophiles recrutés dans les voies aériennes et dans le parenchyme pulmonaire, ainsi qu’une importante diminution de synthèse de cytokines pro-inflammatoires. Cet effet anti-inflammatoire de la chémérine est dépendant de ChemR23, et ne semble pas être secondaire à un effet de la chémérine sur l’activation des macrophages, contrairement à certaines données publiées récemment par d’autres groupes. D’autres hypothèses permettraient cependant de prendre en compte ces observations, notamment un effet de la chémérine sur les cellules épithéliales et/ou endothéliales pulmonaires, ainsi que sur le recrutement de sous-populations de macrophages ou d’autres cellules myéloïdes possédant des propriétés immunosuppressives. Des expériences complémentaires ont été initiées afin de tester ces hypothèses. <p>En conclusion, après avoir caractérisé le système chémérine/ChemR23 chez la souris, nos études ont permis de mettre en évidence le rôle de ce couple ligand/récepteur dans la physiopathologie de certaines pneumopathies inflammatoires, ouvrant ainsi de nouvelles perspectives thérapeutiques, en particulier pour le traitement des pneumopathies virales, qui constituent un problème de santé publique majeur, ainsi que des syndromes de détresse respiratoire aiguë (ARDS). / Doctorat en Sciences médicales / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Chemerin is a chemoattractant adipokine that regulates adipogenesis and may induce insulin resistance. Chemerin serum concentrations are elevated in obese, insulin-resistant, and inflammatory states in vivo. Here we investigate the role of omental (OM) and subcutaneous (SC) adipose tissue chemerin and CMKLR1 messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in human obesity. In addition, we test the hypothesis that changes in chemerin serum concentrations are primarily associated with reduced body fat mass in the context of 3 weight loss intervention studies. Chemerin serum concentration was measured in 740 individuals in a cross-sectional (n = 629) study including a subgroup (n = 161) for which OM and SC chemerin mRNA expression has been analyzed as well as in 3 interventions including 12 weeks of exercise (n = 60), 6 months of calorie-restricted diet (n = 19) studies, and 12 months after bariatric surgery (n = 32). Chemerin mRNA is significantly higher expressed in adipose tissue of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and correlates with circulating chemerin, body mass index (BMI), percentage body fat, C-reactive protein, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance, and glucose infusion rate in euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamps. CMKLR1 mRNA expression was not significantly different between the 2 fat depots. Obesity surgery–induced weight loss causes a significant reduction on both OM and SC chemerin expression. All interventions led to significantly reduced chemerin serum concentrations. Decreased chemerin serum concentrations significantly correlate with improved glucose infusion rate and reduced C-reactive protein levels independently of changes in BMI. Insulin resistance and inflammation are BMI-independent predictors of elevated chemerin serum concentrations. Reduced chemerin expression and serum concentration may contribute to improved insulin sensitivity and subclinical inflammation beyond significant weight loss.

Chemerin is a chemoattractant adipokine that regulates adipogenesis and may induce insulin resistance. Chemerin serum concentrations are elevated in obese, insulin-resistant, and inflammatory states in vivo. Here we investigate the role of omental (OM) and subcutaneous (SC) adipose tissue chemerin and CMKLR1 messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in human obesity. In addition, we test the hypothesis that changes in chemerin serum concentrations are primarily associated with reduced body fat mass in the context of 3 weight loss intervention studies. Chemerin serum concentration was measured in 740 individuals in a cross-sectional (n = 629) study including a subgroup (n = 161) for which OM and SC chemerin mRNA expression has been analyzed as well as in 3 interventions including 12 weeks of exercise (n = 60), 6 months of calorie-restricted diet (n = 19) studies, and 12 months after bariatric surgery (n = 32). Chemerin mRNA is significantly higher expressed in adipose tissue of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and correlates with circulating chemerin, body mass index (BMI), percentage body fat, C-reactive protein, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance, and glucose infusion rate in euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamps. CMKLR1 mRNA expression was not significantly different between the 2 fat depots. Obesity surgery–induced weight loss causes a significant reduction on both OM and SC chemerin expression. All interventions led to significantly reduced chemerin serum concentrations. Decreased chemerin serum concentrations significantly correlate with improved glucose infusion rate and reduced C-reactive protein levels independently of changes in BMI. Insulin resistance and inflammation are BMI-independent predictors of elevated chemerin serum concentrations. Reduced chemerin expression and serum concentration may contribute to improved insulin sensitivity and subclinical inflammation beyond significant weight loss.