Aliada à geração constante de resíduos estão as dificuldades nas formas de disposição e tratamento, muitas vezes custosas e que não levam em consideração suas características básicas. No Brasil, 60% da composição dos resíduos é matéria orgânica passível de reciclagem por meio do processo de compostagem, um método simplificado e sem custos elevados para o seu tratamento sanitariamente adequado. No entanto, as usinas de compostagem são vistas somente como grandes obras de engenharia, capazes de reduzir o volume de resíduos, produzindo um composto de baixa qualidade e vendido a preços irrisórios. Objetivo. Avaliar as usinas de compostagem do estado de São Paulo em função da qualidade dos compostos e processos de produção. Métodos. Pesquisou-se 14 usinas de compostagem do Estado de São Paulo com diferentes processos de produção. O estudo incluiu 3 fases: 1) caraterização da matéria-prima e do material-base e o estudo dos processos de produção, 2) análise dos compostos: física (densidade real e aparente, granulometria e conteúdo total de contaminantes) e química (micro e macronutrientes e metais pesados), e 3) análises estatísticas. Resultados. Os resultados foram avaliados levando-se em conta as usinas separadamente e o agrupamento realizado de acordo com suas estruturas. As usinas que utilizam os processos com peneiras rotatórias apresentaram melhores resultados quanto ao conteúdo de contaminantes e granulometria. Nos resultados químicos, as estruturas das usinas não tiveram influência direta. Conclusões. Os compostos não apresentaram alta qualidade mas podem ser considerados como condicionadores de solo. O problema com as usinas não está na sua estrutura mas sim na falta de acompanhamento dos fatores que regem a compostagem no pátio. / Related to the constant generation of waste are the difficulties in the form of their placement and treatmente, many times very costly and often not taking into consideration its basic charactteristics. In Brazil, 60% of waste composition is organic material which could be recycled by means of a composting process, a simple method and without high costs for adequate sanitary treatment. However, the composting plants are seen only as great engineering feats, capable of reducing the volume of waste, producing a low-quality compost that is sold at ridiculous prices. Objetive. To evaluate the composting plants in the state of São Paulo in function of the quality of the composts and production processes. Methods. Fourteen composting plants in the state of São Paulo with different production processes were investigated. The study includes three phases: 1) characterization of raw materials and of base materials and the study of production processes; 2) composto analysis, both physical (real and apparent densities, granulometry and total contaminat contente) and chemical (micro and macro nutrients and heavy metals); and 3) statistical analysis. Results. The results were evaluated taking into account the composting plants separately as well as by grouping them according to their structural characteristics. The plants utilizing processes with rotating sieves presented better results in relation to both contaminat content and granulometry. For the chemical results, the structural characteristics of the composting plants did not have a direct influence. Conclusions. The composts were not of high quality but could be considered as soil conditioners. The problem with the composting plants was not in their structure but in the lack of accompanying factors that govern the process in the composting area.

by Law Wing Man. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2001. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 192-206). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgments --- p.i / Abstract --- p.ii / List of Figures --- p.vi / List of Tables --- p.xii / Abbreviations --- p.xv / Chapter 1. --- Introduction / Chapter 1.1. --- Pesticides --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1. --- Types and uses --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.2. --- Development of pesticides --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.3. --- The case against pesticides --- p.3 / Chapter 1.2. --- Pentachlorophenol --- p.4 / Chapter 1.2.1. --- Production --- p.4 / Chapter 1.2.2. --- Toxicity --- p.4 / Chapter 1.2.3. --- Persistency --- p.6 / Chapter 1.3. --- Methyl-parathion --- p.9 / Chapter 1.3.1. --- Production --- p.9 / Chapter 1.3.2. --- Toxicity --- p.9 / Chapter 1.3.3. --- Environmental fate --- p.12 / Chapter 1.4. --- Conventional methods dealing with pesticides --- p.12 / Chapter 1.5. --- Bioremediation --- p.15 / Chapter 1.6. --- Spent mushroom compost --- p.17 / Chapter 1.6.1. --- Background --- p.17 / Chapter 1.6.2. --- "Physical, chemical and biological properties of SMC " --- p.19 / Chapter 1.6.3. --- Recycling of agricultural residuals --- p.21 / Chapter 1.6.3.1. --- Definition --- p.21 / Chapter 1.6.3.2. --- Types of recycling --- p.22 / Chapter 1.6.4. --- Potential uses of SMC as bioremediating agent --- p.23 / Chapter 1.6.4.1. --- Use of microorganisms in SMC --- p.23 / Chapter 1.6.4.2. --- Use of ligninolytic enzymes in SMC --- p.24 / Chapter 1.7. --- Ligninolytic enzymes --- p.28 / Chapter 1.7.1. --- Background --- p.28 / Chapter 1.7.2. --- What are white rot fungi? --- p.29 / Chapter 1.7.3. --- Why is lignin so difficult to degrade? --- p.29 / Chapter 1.7.4. --- Three main ligninolytic enzymes --- p.32 / Chapter 1.7.4.1. --- Lignin peroxidases (LiP) --- p.32 / Chapter 1.7.4.2. --- Manganese peroxidase (MnP) --- p.36 / Chapter 1.7.4.3. --- Laccase --- p.37 / Chapter 1.8. --- Why SMC was chosen to be the bioremediating agent in my project? --- p.40 / Chapter 1.9. --- Bioremediation of chlorophenols and PCP --- p.44 / Chapter 1.9.1. --- Bacterial system --- p.44 / Chapter 1.9.2. --- Fungal system --- p.45 / Chapter 1.10. --- Bioremediation of methyl-parathion --- p.49 / Chapter 1.10.1. --- Bacterial system --- p.49 / Chapter 1.10.2. --- Fungal system --- p.51 / Chapter 1.11. --- Proposal and experimental plan of the project --- p.51 / Chapter 1.11.1. --- Study the removal of pesticides in both aquatic and soil system --- p.52 / Chapter 1.11.2. --- Research strategy --- p.52 / Chapter 1.11.3. --- Optimization of pesticide removal --- p.53 / Chapter 1.11.4. --- Identification of breakdown products --- p.54 / Chapter 1.11.5. --- Toxicity assay --- p.54 / Chapter 1.11.6. --- Isotherm plot --- p.55 / Chapter 1.12. --- Objectives of the study --- p.56 / Chapter 2. --- Material and Methods --- p.58 / Chapter 2.1. --- Material --- p.59 / Chapter 2.2. --- Production of Spent Mushroom Compost (SMC) --- p.59 / Chapter 2.3. --- Characterization of SMC --- p.60 / Chapter 2.3.1. --- PH --- p.60 / Chapter 2.3.2. --- Electrical conductivity --- p.60 / Chapter 2.3.3. --- "Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur contents " --- p.60 / Chapter 2.3.4. --- Ash content --- p.61 / Chapter 2.3.5. --- Metal analysis --- p.61 / Chapter 2.3.6. --- Anion content --- p.62 / Chapter 2.3.7. --- Chitin assay --- p.62 / Chapter 2.4. --- Characterization of soil --- p.63 / Chapter 2.4.1. --- Soil texture --- p.63 / Chapter 2.4.2. --- Moisture content --- p.64 / Chapter 2.5. --- Basic studies on the removal capacity of pesticides by SMC --- p.65 / Chapter 2.5.1. --- Preparation of pentachlorophenol and methyl- parathion stock solution --- p.66 / Chapter 2.6. --- Experimental design --- p.65 / Chapter 2.6.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.65 / Chapter 2.6.2. --- In soil system --- p.68 / Chapter 2.7. --- Extraction of pesticides --- p.68 / Chapter 2.7.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.68 / Chapter 2.7.2. --- In soil system --- p.69 / Chapter 2.8. --- Quantification of pesticides --- p.69 / Chapter 2.8.1. --- By high performance liquid chromatography --- p.69 / Chapter 2.8.2. --- By gas chromatography-mass spectrometry --- p.71 / Chapter 2.9. --- Optimization of pesticides degradation by SMC in both aquatic and soil systems --- p.72 / Chapter 2.9.1. --- Effect of initial pesticide concentrations on the removal of pesticides --- p.72 / Chapter 2.9.2. --- Effect of amount of SMC used on the removal of pesticides --- p.73 / Chapter 2.9.3. --- Effect of incubatoin time on the removal of pesticides --- p.73 / Chapter 2.9.4. --- Effect of initial pH on the removal of pesticides --- p.73 / Chapter 2.9.5. --- Effect of incubation of temperature on the removal of pesticides --- p.74 / Chapter 2.10. --- The study of breakdown process of pesticides --- p.74 / Chapter 2.10.1. --- GC/MS --- p.74 / Chapter 2.10.2. --- Ion chmatography --- p.74 / Chapter 2.11. --- Microtox® assay --- p.75 / Chapter 2.12. --- Assessment criteria --- p.75 / Chapter 2.12.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.75 / Chapter 2.12.2. --- In soil system --- p.76 / Chapter 2.13. --- Statistical analysis --- p.77 / Chapter 3. --- Results / Chapter 3.1. --- Characterization of SMC and soil --- p.78 / Chapter 3.2. --- Quantification of pesticides by HPLC and GC/MS --- p.82 / Chapter 3.3. --- Extraction efficiencies of pesticides with hexane --- p.82 / Chapter 3.4. --- Stability of pesticides against time --- p.82 / Chapter 3.5. --- Effect of sterilization of soil in the removal abilities of pesticides…… --- p.88 / Chapter 3.6. --- Optimization of removal of pentachlorophnol --- p.88 / Chapter 3.6.1. --- Effect of incubation time --- p.88 / Chapter 3.6.1.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.88 / Chapter 3.6.1.2. --- In soil system --- p.88 / Chapter 3.6.2. --- Effect of initial PCP concentrations and amout of SMC used --- p.91 / Chapter 3.6.2.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.91 / Chapter 3.6.2.2. --- In soil system --- p.94 / Chapter 3.6.3. --- Effect of pH --- p.97 / Chapter 3.6.3.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.97 / Chapter 3.6.3.2. --- In soil system --- p.97 / Chapter 3.6.4. --- Effect of incubation temperature --- p.97 / Chapter 3.6.4.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.97 / Chapter 3.6.4.2. --- In soil system --- p.101 / Chapter 3.6.5. --- Potential breakdown intermediates and products --- p.101 / Chapter 3.6.5.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.101 / Chapter 3.6.5.2. --- In soil system --- p.104 / Chapter 3.7. --- Microtox® assay of PCP --- p.110 / Chapter 3.7.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.110 / Chapter 3.7.2. --- In soil system --- p.110 / Chapter 3.8. --- Optimization of removal of methyl-parathion --- p.113 / Chapter 3.8.1. --- Effect of incubation time --- p.113 / Chapter 3.8.1.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.113 / Chapter 3.8.1.2. --- In soil system --- p.113 / Chapter 3.8.2. --- Effect of initial concentration and amount of SMC --- p.115 / Chapter 3.8.2.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.115 / Chapter 3.8.2.2. --- In soil system --- p.117 / Chapter 3.8.3. --- Effect of incubation temperature --- p.120 / Chapter 3.8.3.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.120 / Chapter 3.8.3.2. --- In soil system --- p.120 / Chapter 3.8.4. --- Potential breakdown intermediates and products --- p.121 / Chapter 3.8.4.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.121 / Chapter 3.8.4.2. --- In soil system --- p.124 / Chapter 3.9. --- Microtox ® assay of methyl-parathion --- p.133 / Chapter 3.9.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.133 / Chapter 3.9.2. --- In soil system --- p.133 / Chapter 4. --- Discussion / Chapter 4.1. --- Characterization of SMC and soil --- p.137 / Chapter 4.2. --- Stability of pesticides against time in aquatic and soil system --- p.141 / Chapter 4.3. --- Effect of sterilization of soil in the removal abilities of pesticides --- p.142 / Chapter 4.4. --- Optimization of removal of PCP --- p.142 / Chapter 4.4.1. --- Effect of incubation time --- p.142 / Chapter 4.4.1.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.142 / Chapter 4.4.1.2. --- In soil system --- p.143 / Chapter 4.4.2. --- Effect of initial PCP concentrations and amount of SMC --- p.144 / Chapter 4.4.2.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.144 / Chapter 4.4.2.2. --- In soil system --- p.147 / Chapter 4.4.3. --- Effect of pH --- p.149 / Chapter 4.4.3.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.149 / Chapter 4.4.3.2. --- In soil system --- p.150 / Chapter 4.4.4. --- Effect of incubation temperature --- p.150 / Chapter 4.4.4.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.150 / Chapter 4.4.4.2. --- In soil system --- p.152 / Chapter 4.4.5. --- Potential breakdown intermediates and products --- p.152 / Chapter 4.4.5.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.152 / Chapter 4.4.5.2. --- In soil system --- p.158 / Chapter 4.5. --- Microtox® assay of PCP --- p.159 / Chapter 4.5.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.159 / Chapter 4.5.2. --- In soil system --- p.160 / Chapter 4.6. --- Removal of PCP by the aqueous extract of SMC --- p.162 / Chapter 4.7. --- Optimization of removal of methyl-parathion --- p.164 / Chapter 4.7.1. --- Effect of incubation time --- p.164 / Chapter 4.7.1.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.164 / Chapter 4.7.1.2. --- In soil system --- p.165 / Chapter 4.7.2. --- Effect of initial methyl-paration concentrations and amount of SMC used --- p.165 / Chapter 4.7.2.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.165 / Chapter 4.7.2.2. --- I in soil system --- p.166 / Chapter 4.7.3. --- Effect of incubation temperature --- p.168 / Chapter 4.7.3.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.168 / Chapter 4.7.3.2. --- In soil system --- p.169 / Chapter 4.7.4. --- Potential breakdown intermediates and products --- p.169 / Chapter 4.7.4.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.169 / Chapter 4.7.4.2. --- In soil system --- p.170 / Chapter 4.8. --- Microtox® assay of Methyl-parathion --- p.173 / Chapter 4.8.1. --- In aquatic system --- p.173 / Chapter 4.8.2. --- In soil system --- p.174 / Chapter 4.9. --- Removal of methyl-parathion by the aqueous extract of SMC --- p.174 / Chapter 4.10. --- The ability of different types of SMC in the removal of organic pollutants --- p.176 / Chapter 4.11. --- The storage of SMC --- p.178 / Chapter 4.12. --- The effect of scale in the removal of pesticides --- p.180 / Chapter 4.13. --- Cost-effectiveness of using SMC as crude enzymes sources --- p.180 / Chapter 4.14. --- The effect of surfactant on the removal of PCP --- p.182 / Chapter 4.15. --- Prospects for employment SMC in removal of pollutants --- p.185 / Chapter 5. --- Conclusions --- p.186 / Chapter 6. --- Future investigation --- p.190 / Chapter 7. --- References --- p.192

Orientador: Marli Teixeira de Almeida Minhoni / Banca: Meire Cristina Nogueira de Andrade / Banca: Eduardo Bagagli / Resumo: A produção de composto de qualidade para Agaricus bisporus e a pesquisa por linhagens produtivas são alguns dos principais fatores relacionados à produtividades elevadas. Desta forma, foram realizados dois experimentos: 1. a campo, avaliou-se o efeito da suplementação nitrogenada na formulação de dois tipos de compostos, clássico e sintético, para o cultivo de cinco linhagens de A. bisporus: ABI-05/03, ABI-04/02, ABI-06/05, ABI-09/10 e ABI-09/11; 2. avaliou-se a influência de cinco linhagens de A. bisporus no desenvolvimento micelial em dois meios de cultura sólidos (CA, composto ágar; e BDA, batata dextrose ágar). No experimento 1, constatou-se durante o processo de compostagem, pasteurização e condicionamento o composto clássico obteve temperatura média e perda de massa 10,56 e 13,29% superiores ao composto sintético, respectivamente. O composto clássico obteve as maiores eficiências biológicas ao final de 25 dias de produção, pelas linhagens ABI-05/03, ABI-06/05 e ABI-04/02 com valores de 83,95, 79,45 e 77,49%, respectivamente. Além da eficiência biológica, houve uma tendencia de maior produtividade, número e massa de fresca de basidiomas quando as linhagens foram cultivadas em composto clássico. No experimento II as maiores velocidades de desenvolvimento micelial das linhagens de A. bisporus foram observadas nos meios de cultura CA. Concluiu-se que não houve ligação entre os resultados observados nos experimentos I e II em relação ao potencial genético das... / Abstract: The production of quality compost for Agaricus bisporus and the research for high productivity strains are some important factors involving high yields. Were carried out two expiriments: 1. at field, the effect of the type of nitrogen supplementation was evaluated, elaborating two types of compost, classic and synthetic, cultivating five strains of A. bisporus ABI-05/03, ABI-04/02, ABI-06/05, ABI-09/10 e ABI-09/11; 2. was evaluated the influence of five A. bisporus strains on the rate of micelial growth in different type of culture media (MC, compost media; BDA, potato-dextrose-agar). In the first experiment, the data showed that during the composting process, pasteurization and conditioning, the averages temperatures and weight loss 10,56 and 13,29% higher in the classic compost than the synthetic compost . The classic compost had the higher biological efficiency in the end of the crop (25 days), for the strains ABI-05/03, ABI-06/05 e ABI-04/02 with values of 83,95, 79,45 e 77,49, respectively. Moreover, there was a tendency for higher yields, number and fresh weight of mushrooms when the strains were cultivated in the classic compost. In the second experiment the highest micelial growth rate by the A. bisporus strains were observed in the compost agar media. It was observed that were no relation between the data in experiments I and II, by the genetic potential of the strains / Mestre

No description available.

Aliada à geração constante de resíduos estão as dificuldades nas formas de disposição e tratamento, muitas vezes custosas e que não levam em consideração suas características básicas. No Brasil, 60% da composição dos resíduos é matéria orgânica passível de reciclagem por meio do processo de compostagem, um método simplificado e sem custos elevados para o seu tratamento sanitariamente adequado. No entanto, as usinas de compostagem são vistas somente como grandes obras de engenharia, capazes de reduzir o volume de resíduos, produzindo um composto de baixa qualidade e vendido a preços irrisórios. Objetivo. Avaliar as usinas de compostagem do estado de São Paulo em função da qualidade dos compostos e processos de produção. Métodos. Pesquisou-se 14 usinas de compostagem do Estado de São Paulo com diferentes processos de produção. O estudo incluiu 3 fases: 1) caraterização da matéria-prima e do material-base e o estudo dos processos de produção, 2) análise dos compostos: física (densidade real e aparente, granulometria e conteúdo total de contaminantes) e química (micro e macronutrientes e metais pesados), e 3) análises estatísticas. Resultados. Os resultados foram avaliados levando-se em conta as usinas separadamente e o agrupamento realizado de acordo com suas estruturas. As usinas que utilizam os processos com peneiras rotatórias apresentaram melhores resultados quanto ao conteúdo de contaminantes e granulometria. Nos resultados químicos, as estruturas das usinas não tiveram influência direta. Conclusões. Os compostos não apresentaram alta qualidade mas podem ser considerados como condicionadores de solo. O problema com as usinas não está na sua estrutura mas sim na falta de acompanhamento dos fatores que regem a compostagem no pátio. / Related to the constant generation of waste are the difficulties in the form of their placement and treatmente, many times very costly and often not taking into consideration its basic charactteristics. In Brazil, 60% of waste composition is organic material which could be recycled by means of a composting process, a simple method and without high costs for adequate sanitary treatment. However, the composting plants are seen only as great engineering feats, capable of reducing the volume of waste, producing a low-quality compost that is sold at ridiculous prices. Objetive. To evaluate the composting plants in the state of São Paulo in function of the quality of the composts and production processes. Methods. Fourteen composting plants in the state of São Paulo with different production processes were investigated. The study includes three phases: 1) characterization of raw materials and of base materials and the study of production processes; 2) composto analysis, both physical (real and apparent densities, granulometry and total contaminat contente) and chemical (micro and macro nutrients and heavy metals); and 3) statistical analysis. Results. The results were evaluated taking into account the composting plants separately as well as by grouping them according to their structural characteristics. The plants utilizing processes with rotating sieves presented better results in relation to both contaminat content and granulometry. For the chemical results, the structural characteristics of the composting plants did not have a direct influence. Conclusions. The composts were not of high quality but could be considered as soil conditioners. The problem with the composting plants was not in their structure but in the lack of accompanying factors that govern the process in the composting area.

O processo de compostagem é considerado um dos principais métodos sustentáveis de tratamento de rejeitos orgânicos provenientes dos centros urbanos. Sua importância reside em sua capacidade de sanitizar o material, estabilizar sua fração orgânica e ainda disponibilizar um produto final com características físico-químicas e biológicas que promoverão uma melhoria no sistema produtivo quando aplicado ao solo. Todavia, são vários os fatores que influenciam o desenvolvimento desse processo e exigem um equilíbrio tal que nos casos em que esse tratamento de resíduo é aplicado, muitas vezes o processo é incompleto e o produto final não apresenta as características adequadas de sanitização ou de promoção da qualidade do solo. Portanto, o presente estudo objetivou avaliar o efeito da apliação de inoculantes no desenvolvimento do processo de compostagem e a influência dessa aplicação nas características do produto final, sob a hipótese de que a adição de compostos biológicos energéticos aos resíduos promove a ação decompositora e potencializa o processo da compostagem. Para isso foram montadas leiras de compostagem com material orgânico produzido nos centros urbanos. Foram avaliados os seguintes tratamentos: inoculante usado em compostagem industrial, inoculante desenvolvido pelos pesquisadores e controle (pilhas de controle sem aplicação de inoculantes). Todas as leiras de compostagem foram avaliadas quando à sua temperatura, umidade e densidade, seu pH e conteúdo de macronutrientes, sua atividade microbiana, sua qualidade da matéria orgânica e emissão de gases do efeito estufa. Os dados obtidos demonstraram que o perfil da temperatura das leiras ao longo do processo acompanha o comportamento da atividade microbiológica. Os inoculantes aplicados não alteraram as condições físico-químicas do processo quando comparados ao controle. Foi observado um acúmulo de carbono na menor fração da matéria orgânica, indicando formação de substâncias recalcitrantes pela decomposição. A análise da emissão de gases do efeito estufa demonstrou que esse fator pode ser influenciado pelos manejos realizados sobre a leira de compostagem. Constatou-se que o uso de inoculantes não alterou significativamente nenhum dos parâmetros avaliados quando comparado ao controle, sendo que seu uso não promoveu melhorias na qualidade do produto final, nem tampouco se mostrou essencial ao bom desenvolvimento do processo de compostagem quando se trata resíduos orgânicos, que apresentam facilidade de decomposição. / The composting process is considered one of the main sustainable methods for treatment of the organic waste from urban centers. Its importance lies in its ability to sanitize the material, stabilize its organic fraction and also provide a final product with biological and physicochemical characteristics that will promote an improvement in the productive system when apllied to the soil. However, the factors that influence the development of this process are so many and require such an equilibrium that in cases where this residue treatment methodology is applied, the process is often incomplete and the final product does not have the appropriate sanitation or characteristics that promote soil quality. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the effect of inoculant application on the development of the composting process and the influence of this application on the final product\'s characteristics. For this, composting piles were assembled with organic material produced in urban centers and applied an inoculant used in industrial composting, another one developed by the researchers and control cells were mantained without applications. All compost beds were evaluated for thier temperature, humidity and density, their pH and macronutrient content were measured, along with its microbial activity, quality of organic matter and the greenhouse gas emissions. The data obtained showed that the profile of the temperature of the piles during the process followed the behavior of the microbiological activity. The inoculants applied did not alter the physicochemical conditions of the process when compared to the control. It was observed a carbon accumulation in the smallest fraction of the organic matter, indicating the formation of recalcitrant substances by the decomposition. The analysis of greenhouse gas emissions showed that the management of the composting pile could influence this factor. It was found that the use of inoculants did not significantly alter any of the evaluated parameters when compared to control, and its use did not promote improvements in the final product\'s quality, nor was it essential for the proper development of ther composting process when dealing with organic urban waste, which is easly decomposed.

A produção de resíduos orgânicos tem aumentado em anos recentes e uma alternativa para o seu aproveitamento é o processo de compostagem, no qual se desenvolvem reações bioquímicas para estabilização do material que estão diretamente associadas com a humificação da matéria orgânica. Considerando a complexidade das transformações no processo de humificação e a importância de se conhecer com maior precisão estas reações e as características dos materiais gerados, foi proposto neste trabalho um estudo detalhado do processo de compostagem. A combinação de métodos convencionais e técnicas espectroscópicas permitiu o monitoramento contínuo da compostagem, de diferentes resíduos orgânicos. Para execução dos experimentos foram montadas 6 leiras (L) de 3,6 m3 com os seguintes resíduos: poda de árvores, esterco bovino fresco, bagaço de laranja, torta de filtro e solução de ácido pirolenhoso (como possível catalisador do processo). O monitorado foi realizado por 7 meses com medidas diárias de temperatura, controle semanal do teor de umidade e coletas mensais das amostras para extração de ácidos húmicos e análises químicas. Foram observadas as fases típicas da temperatura em todas as leiras, exceto na L1 (constituída apenas de poda de árvores). Na fase termofílica a temperatura atingiu os 60 o C e esta fase permaneceu por, aproximadamente, 90 dias. Este também foi o tempo necessário para a estabilização da relação da capacidade de troca catiônica pelo teor de carbono do composto (CTC/C), que alcançou valores acima de 2,2 mmolc g-1 . As análises de macro e micronutrientes evidenciaram o potencial fertilizante dos compostos produzidos, cujos valores, para alguns elementos, estão acima dos limites exigidos pela Instrução Normativa no 23 do Ministério de Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento. Já nas análises espectroscópicas foram encontrados índices de estabilização a partir dos espectros de fluorescência de luz UV - Vis. Estes apresentaram boa correlação com a razão C/N e os radicais livres orgânicos do tipo semiquinona, detectados por Ressonância Paramagnética Eletrônica. As correlações dos índices com a razão C/N mostraram que este último parâmetro tem limitação para monitorar a compostagem, pois a partir de 60 dias a relação C/N estabiliza, ainda na fase termofílica do processo, enquanto que os índices espectroscópicos continuam variando, indicando que o processo não se estabilizou completamente. Dentre as informações obtidas por fluorescência, foi possível identificar reações de transformação de moléculas orgânicas mais simples para estruturas mais complexas, detectadas através da diminuição de intensidade das bandas de emissão em comprimentos de onda menores (em torno de 300 nm) com simultâneo aumento da intensidade em regiões de maiores comprimentos de onda (próximos de 400 nm). Este comportamento também foi observado nos espectros de absorção UV - Vis. A partir dos dados de Ressonância Magnética Nuclear (RMN de 13 C) foi possível evidenciar a decomposição de estruturas como carboidratos, polissacarídeos e grupos alquil, assim como um aumento das estruturas aromáticas, durante o processo de humificação. Assim através da combinação das análises por métodos convencionais e espectroscópicos foram propostos indicadores analíticos mais sensíveis para o monitoramento e a caracterização da compostagem de resíduos orgânicos. / The production of organic residues has increased in recent years and an alternative to their recycling is the composting process, where various biochemical reactions are developed for the material stabilization. These reactions are directly associated with organic matter humification. Considering the complexity of the transformations occurred during the humification process and the importance of knowing these reactions and the characteristics of the produced materials more precisely, this work has proposed a detailed study of the composting process. The combination of conventional methods and spectroscopic techniques allowed the continuous composting assessment and monitoring from different organic residues. Six piles (P) of 3.6 m3 were assembled using the following residues: garden trimming, fresh cattle manure, orange pomace, filter cake and pyroligneous acid solution (used as possible catalyst of the process). The process was monitored for 7 months with daily measurements of temperature, weekly moisture control and monthly collection of samples for humic acid (HA) extraction and chemical analyses. Typical phases of temperature in all piles were observed, except for P1 (composed only garden trimming). In the thermophilic phase the temperature reached 60 o C and this phase remained for about 90 days. This was also the time necessary for stabilization of cation exchange capacity and total carbon ratio (CEC/C), which reached values above of 2.2 mmolc g-1 . The macro- and micronutrient analyses showed the fertilizer potential of the produced composts. Concentration values for same elements are above those required by Normative Instruction number 23 of the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Food Supply. As a result of the spectroscopic analyses, stabilization indices were obtained from fluorescence spectra of UV-Visible light. These indices showed good correlation with C/N ratio and with the semiquinone-type free radical, detected by Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR). The correlation of the indices with C/N ratio showed that the latter parameter has limitation to monitor the composting, because after 60 days the C/N ratio stabilizes and this occurs during the thermophilic phase, while the spectroscopic indices continue to change, which is an indicative that the process was not completely stabilized. Among several observations by fluorescence of UV-Visible light it was possible to identify transformation reactions of simpler organic molecules to more complex structures, which were detected by decrease in emission band intensity in shorter wavelengths (near 300 nm) with simultaneous increase in band intensity in longer wavelengths (near 400 nm). This behavior was also observed in the UV - Visible absorption spectra. It was possible to show the decomposition of carbohydrate type structures, polysaccharides and alkyl groups and the increase in aromatic structures, by 13 C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (13C NMR), during humification process of the organic residues. Therefore, more sensible analytic indicators were proposed for monitoring and characterization of the composting of organic residues through the combination of conventional and spectroscopic methods.

O uso de resíduos agrícolas como fonte de carbono para a geração de energia renovável parece uma solução promissora para reduzir nossa dependência em combustíveis fósseis. Na natureza, como na compostagem, comunidades microbianas formam redes metabólicas complexas que degradam eficientemente a biomassa disponível através de um conjunto de enzimas sinérgicas. Entretanto, a desconstrução da lignocelulose continua uma desafio para a indústria devido a natureza recalcitrante do substrato e a baixa atividade das enzimas, aumentando o preço do biocombustível produzido. Estudos de metagenômica e metatranscriptômica de comunidades microbianas complexas tornam possível acessar as funções metabólicas empregadas por consórcios lignocelulolíticos e revelar novos biocatalisadores que podem melhorar a conversão industrial da lignocelulose. Aqui, através de uma abordagem metagenômica, foi examinada a diversidade de microrganismos obtidos em condições laboratoriais quando um meio definido ou um complexo foi usado no seu crescimento. Em seguida, a comunidade microbiana derivada de compostagem foi crescida em meio mínimo com bagaço de cana-de-açúcar como única fonte de carbono. A degradação do substrato foi monitorada e o metatranscriptoma da cultura resultante foi sequenciado, seguido pela seleção e caracterização funcional de vários alvos. Durante as cinco semanas de estudo, a comunidade microbiana crescida em meio mínimo mostrou maior diversidade e enriquecimento em microrganismos capazes de degradar a lignocelulose do que a comunidade microbiana crescida no meio complexo. A partir do metatranscriptoma foi descoberta a primeira hidrolase de glicosídeo da família 11 com atividade exoxilanase (C21). A estrutura cristalográfica da C21, refinada à 1,76 Å, revelou que a atividade exoxilanase observada se deve a presença de duas alças que não estão presentes nas demais estruturas dos membros da família 11 de hidrolase de glicosídeo depositadas até então. A adição da C21 a um coquetel comercial provocou um aumento na velocidade de hidrólise do Avicel quando na presença de xilooligômeros. As análises metagenômica e metatranscriptômica da comunidade microbiana proveniente da compostagem revelaram que o uso de um meio definido pode deslocar espécies generalistas, levando a uma fonte enriquecida para explorar enzimas com aplicação biotecnológica. Também demonstrou a diversidade de mecanismos envolvidos na degradação in situ da lignocelulose. / Using of the globally abundant crop residues as carbon source for energy generation seems a promising solution to reduce our dependency on fossil fuels. In nature, such as in compost habitats, microbial communities create complex metabolic networks that efficiently degrade the available plant biomass using a set of synergistic enzymes. However, deconstruction of lignocellulose remains a challenge for industry due to recalcitrant nature of the substrate and enzymes low activity, raising the price of the produced biofuel. Metagenomics and metatranscriptomics studies on complex microbial communities can assess the metabolic functions employed by the lignocellulolytic consortia and unveil novel biocatalysts that could improve industrial lignocellulose conversion. Here, using 16S rRNA amplicon metagenomic approach, we examined the diversity of microorganisms obtained in the laboratory setting when a nutrient-limited or nutrient-rich media are used. Then, a microbial community derived from compost was grown in minimal medium with sugarcane bagasse as a sole carbon source. The substrate degradation was monitored and the metatranscriptome from the resulting cultures was sequenced; several target genes were selected and functional characterized. During a five-week time course, the microbial community grown in minimal medium showed greater diversity and enrichment in lignocellulose-degrading microorganisms than the one grown in nutrient rich medium. Metatranscriptomics analysis revealed the first glycoside hydrolase from family 11 with exo-xylanase activity (C21). C21 crystal structure, refined at 1.76 Å, explained the molecular basis of exo-xylanase activity due to two extra loops previously unseen in the other reported structures from members from glycoside hydrolase family 11. A supplementation of commercial enzyme mix with C21 showed improvement in Avicel hydrolysis in the presence of inhibitory xylooligomers. The combination of metagenomic and metatranscriptomic analysis of compost-derived microbial community showed that nutrient-limited medium may displace bacterial generalist species, leading to an enriched source for mining novel enzymes for biotechnology applications. It also unveiled a diversity of mechanisms involved in lignocellulose degradation in situ.

Objetivo: Determinar el contenido de metales pesados en el compost de residuos de camal mezclado con residuos vegetales y estiércol en la Provincia de Chupaca, Junín, 2017. Métodos: Investigación Experimental de tipo Aplicada y de Diseño experimental Completamente al Azar con 3 repeticiones, en una cantidad promedio de mezcla de 50 kg por unidad experimental, en un sistema de pilas sobre la superficie. El método especifico estuvo basado en el Análisis y Observacional. Se utilizaron 4 tratamientos con 40, 50, 60 y 70 % de residuos de camal en mezclas proporcionales con 15, 20 y 30 % de residuos vegetales y estiércol de vacuno, además de un tratamiento testigo con 60 % de residuos vegetales y 40 % de estiércol La recolección de datos fue mediante la Observación. Se utilizó la distribución t para la prueba de Hipótesis.

Microaerobic fermentation (MF) is a process of controlled degradation of organic waste material that occurs in enclosed fermentors under micro-aerobic conditions at near-room temperature. MF processing of vegetal materials progresses to endpoints in about 2-5 weeks. During MF processing, an acidic leachate rich in organic acids and alcohols is produced. The research presented in this thesis focuses on the efficiency of MF pre-processing of feedstock containing fibrous lignocellulosic (FLC) materials; efficiency of microbial and insect larvae-based treatments of MF leachate; tolerance of the Black Soldier fly larvae (BSFL) to various biological inhibitors common in leachate; and effectiveness of using MF and BSFL solid and liquid processing products as agricultural fertilizers. Results indicate that MF is unsuitable for pre-processing of FLC materials. Enhanced MF leachate treatment may increase efficiency of FLC processing though. Leachate can be efficiently treated using BSFL which decrease overall leachate toxicity. BSFL are able to tolerate increased levels of many of the biological inhibitors within the leachate including ethanol, acetate, pH extremes and temperature. MF solid residues increased corn plant growth when amended into soil, but residues resulting from BSFL processing of solid organics stunted corn plant growth. Short-term phytotoxicity of MF leachate was eliminated by diluting it 10 - 10,000 times or through BSFL processing. It can be concluded that MF processing of organics is beneficial for producing solid soil amendments from non-FLC materials and that dilution or BSFL treatment of MF leachate leads to a beneficial liquid fertilizer.