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Conídios são estruturas especializadas, produzidas assexuadamente pelo micélio de muitas espécies de ascomicetos. A produção dos conídios requer o controle espacial e temporal da expressão gênica e a formação de estruturas específicas durante o desenvolvimento. Os conídios estão envolvidos na reprodução, dispersão e persistência ambiental dos fungos. Em espécies patogênicas como Aspergillus fumigatus e Metarhizium anisopliae, os conídios também são responsáveis pela infecção do hospedeiro. Um dos principais fatores ambientais capazes de matar e / ou danificar os conídios é a radiação solar. Os dímeros de pirimidina ciclobutano (CPDs) são os principais fotoprodutos do DNA induzidos pela radiação UVB. Os principais objetivos deste trabalho foram: (1) estimar as frequências de CPDs em conídios expostos a doses subletais de radiação UVB, (2) correlacionar a frequência de CPDs com a cinética de germinação dos conídios, (3) comparar a frequência de CPDs em conídios selvagens com a frequência em conídios mutantes para a pigmentação, (4) identificar genes diferencialmente expressos durante as fases da conidiogênese de A. fumigatus e (5) identificar genes modulados pela radiação UVB em micélio jovem de A. fumigatus. Conídios de M. anisopliae, A. nidulans e A. fumigatus foram expostos à irradiância de 1000 mW m-2 de UVB por 15, 30, 60 e 90 min. As doses totais ao final das exposições foram 0,9, 1,8, 3,6 e 5,4 kJ m-2. O aumento na frequência de CPDs foi linear e diretamente proporcional à dose, com 0,215, 0,455, 0,803 e 1,628 CPDs 10 kb-1 induzidos pelas doses de 0,9, 1,8, 3,6 e 5,4 kJ m-2 em A. fumigatus, 0,037, 0,077, 0,142 e 0,202 CPDs 10 kb-1 em A. nidulans e 0,041, 0,085, 0,155 e 0,255 CPDs 10 kb-1 em M. anisopliae. A frequência de CPDs no mutante albino de M. anisopliae (0,552 10 kb-1) foi aproximadamente dez vezes maior do que na linhagem selvagem (0.057 10 kb-1) após exposição à dose de 1,8 kJ m-2. Esta é a primeira evidência direta de que a pigmentação dos conídios protege o DNA contra os danos induzidos pela radiação UVB. Microarranjos genômicos de DNA foram utilizados para comparar os transcriptomas de micélios com 20 h (início da conidiogênese), 24 h (fase intermediária) e 25 h (fase final) com o transcriptoma de micélio jovem. Foram identificados 34 genes diferencialmente expressos (7 com aumento e 27 com diminuição) com 20 h de desenvolvimento, 101 genes (12 com aumento e 89 com diminuição) com 24 h e 76 genes (oito com aumento e 68 com diminuição) com 25 h. Alguns genes que apresentaram aumento na expressão (stuA e o gene da scytalone dehydratase) já haviam sido associados com fases específicas da conidiogênese, entretanto a maioria dos genes que apresentou aumento na expressão não tem função conhecida. A análise de transcriptomas com microarranjos de DNA também foi utilizada para identificar genes com expressão modulada por exposições à radiação UVB (1,8 kJ m-2) em micélio jovem de A. fumigatus. Foram identificados 101 genes diferencialmente expressos ao final da exposição à radiação UVB (51 genes com aumento e 50 com redução). O gene radc apresentou o maior aumento na expressão (aproximadamente 16 ×). A maioria dos genes com aumento na expressão não possui função conhecida. Foram identificados 418 genes diferencialmente expressos 30 min após o termino da exposição (51 genes com aumento e 367 com redução na expressão). / Conidia are specialized structures produced asexually during mycelia growth of many ascomycete species. The process of conidiation involves temporal and spatial regulation of gene expression, cell specialization, intercellular communication, and formation of specific structures during fungal growth. Conidia are responsible for the reproduction, dispersal and environmental persistence of many fungal species. In pathogenic species like Aspergillus fumigatus and Metarhizium anisopliae, conidia are also responsible for host infection. One of the main environmental factors that can kill and/or damage conidia is solar UV radiation. Cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) are the major DNA photoproducts induced by UVB. The principal goals of the present study were to: (1) estimate the frequency of CPDs induced by sublethal doses of UVB radiation in conidial DNA of three selected ascomycetes, (2) examine correlation of CPD frequencies with germination speed, and (3) estimate the protective effect of the wild-type green conidial pigmentation on DNA in M. anisopliae var. anisopliae, (4) identify differentially expressed genes during the different phases of A. fumigatus conidiogenesis and (5) identify genes regulated by UVB radiation in A. fumigatus young mycelia. A. fumigatus, A. nidulans, and M. anisopliae conidia were exposed to 1000 mW m-2 UV irradiance for 15, 30, 60 and 90 min. Total Quaite-weighted doses were 0.9, 1.8, 3.6 and 5.4 kJ m-2, respectively. The frequencies of dimers were linear and directly proportional to the doses, with 0.215, 0.455, 0.803 and 1.628 CPDs 10 kb-1 detected at the doses of 0.9, 1.8, 3.6 and 5.4 kJ m-2 in A. fumigatus, 0.037, 0.077, 0.142 and 0.202 CPDs 10 kb-1 in A. nidulans, and 0.041, 0.085, 0.155 and 0.255 CPDs 10 kb-1 in M. anisopliae. The frequency of dimers in the M. anisopliae albino mutant DWR 180 (0.552 10 kb-1) was approximately ten times higher than of the wild-type ARSEF 23 strain (0.057 10 kb-1) after exposure to doses of 1.8 kJ m-2. DNA microarrays carrying sequence of 11,000 genes of A. fumigatus were used to compare transcriptomes of 20 h-old mycelia (initial phase of the conidiogenesis), 24 h (intermediate phase) e 25 h (final phase) with young mycelia transcriptome. Thirty-four genes displayed a statistically significant difference in expression (7 with increase and 27 with decrease mRNA expression) in 20 h-old mycelia, 101 genes (12 with increase and 89 with decrease) in 24 h-old mycelia and 76 genes (8 with increase and 68 with decrease) in 25 h-old mycelia. Some overexpressed genes (stuA ad the scytalone dehydratase gene) were previously related to specific phases of conidiogenesis but the function of most of them is unknown. Transcriptome analysis using microarrays was also used to identify genes modulated by exposures to UVB radiation (1,8 kJ m-2) in A. fumigatus young mycelia. One hundred and one differentially expressed genes were identified at the end of the exposure to UVB radiation (51 genes with increase and 50 with decrease). The radc gene displayed the higher increase in expression (approximately 16 ×). The function of most of the overexpressed genes is unknown. Four hundred and eighteen differentially expressed genes were identified 30 min after the end of exposure (51 genes with increase and 367 with decrease in expression).

Conídios são estruturas especializadas, produzidas assexuadamente pelo micélio de muitas espécies de ascomicetos. A produção dos conídios requer o controle espacial e temporal da expressão gênica e a formação de estruturas específicas durante o desenvolvimento. Os conídios estão envolvidos na reprodução, dispersão e persistência ambiental dos fungos. Em espécies patogênicas como Aspergillus fumigatus e Metarhizium anisopliae, os conídios também são responsáveis pela infecção do hospedeiro. Um dos principais fatores ambientais capazes de matar e / ou danificar os conídios é a radiação solar. Os dímeros de pirimidina ciclobutano (CPDs) são os principais fotoprodutos do DNA induzidos pela radiação UVB. Os principais objetivos deste trabalho foram: (1) estimar as frequências de CPDs em conídios expostos a doses subletais de radiação UVB, (2) correlacionar a frequência de CPDs com a cinética de germinação dos conídios, (3) comparar a frequência de CPDs em conídios selvagens com a frequência em conídios mutantes para a pigmentação, (4) identificar genes diferencialmente expressos durante as fases da conidiogênese de A. fumigatus e (5) identificar genes modulados pela radiação UVB em micélio jovem de A. fumigatus. Conídios de M. anisopliae, A. nidulans e A. fumigatus foram expostos à irradiância de 1000 mW m-2 de UVB por 15, 30, 60 e 90 min. As doses totais ao final das exposições foram 0,9, 1,8, 3,6 e 5,4 kJ m-2. O aumento na frequência de CPDs foi linear e diretamente proporcional à dose, com 0,215, 0,455, 0,803 e 1,628 CPDs 10 kb-1 induzidos pelas doses de 0,9, 1,8, 3,6 e 5,4 kJ m-2 em A. fumigatus, 0,037, 0,077, 0,142 e 0,202 CPDs 10 kb-1 em A. nidulans e 0,041, 0,085, 0,155 e 0,255 CPDs 10 kb-1 em M. anisopliae. A frequência de CPDs no mutante albino de M. anisopliae (0,552 10 kb-1) foi aproximadamente dez vezes maior do que na linhagem selvagem (0.057 10 kb-1) após exposição à dose de 1,8 kJ m-2. Esta é a primeira evidência direta de que a pigmentação dos conídios protege o DNA contra os danos induzidos pela radiação UVB. Microarranjos genômicos de DNA foram utilizados para comparar os transcriptomas de micélios com 20 h (início da conidiogênese), 24 h (fase intermediária) e 25 h (fase final) com o transcriptoma de micélio jovem. Foram identificados 34 genes diferencialmente expressos (7 com aumento e 27 com diminuição) com 20 h de desenvolvimento, 101 genes (12 com aumento e 89 com diminuição) com 24 h e 76 genes (oito com aumento e 68 com diminuição) com 25 h. Alguns genes que apresentaram aumento na expressão (stuA e o gene da scytalone dehydratase) já haviam sido associados com fases específicas da conidiogênese, entretanto a maioria dos genes que apresentou aumento na expressão não tem função conhecida. A análise de transcriptomas com microarranjos de DNA também foi utilizada para identificar genes com expressão modulada por exposições à radiação UVB (1,8 kJ m-2) em micélio jovem de A. fumigatus. Foram identificados 101 genes diferencialmente expressos ao final da exposição à radiação UVB (51 genes com aumento e 50 com redução). O gene radc apresentou o maior aumento na expressão (aproximadamente 16 ×). A maioria dos genes com aumento na expressão não possui função conhecida. Foram identificados 418 genes diferencialmente expressos 30 min após o termino da exposição (51 genes com aumento e 367 com redução na expressão). / Conidia are specialized structures produced asexually during mycelia growth of many ascomycete species. The process of conidiation involves temporal and spatial regulation of gene expression, cell specialization, intercellular communication, and formation of specific structures during fungal growth. Conidia are responsible for the reproduction, dispersal and environmental persistence of many fungal species. In pathogenic species like Aspergillus fumigatus and Metarhizium anisopliae, conidia are also responsible for host infection. One of the main environmental factors that can kill and/or damage conidia is solar UV radiation. Cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) are the major DNA photoproducts induced by UVB. The principal goals of the present study were to: (1) estimate the frequency of CPDs induced by sublethal doses of UVB radiation in conidial DNA of three selected ascomycetes, (2) examine correlation of CPD frequencies with germination speed, and (3) estimate the protective effect of the wild-type green conidial pigmentation on DNA in M. anisopliae var. anisopliae, (4) identify differentially expressed genes during the different phases of A. fumigatus conidiogenesis and (5) identify genes regulated by UVB radiation in A. fumigatus young mycelia. A. fumigatus, A. nidulans, and M. anisopliae conidia were exposed to 1000 mW m-2 UV irradiance for 15, 30, 60 and 90 min. Total Quaite-weighted doses were 0.9, 1.8, 3.6 and 5.4 kJ m-2, respectively. The frequencies of dimers were linear and directly proportional to the doses, with 0.215, 0.455, 0.803 and 1.628 CPDs 10 kb-1 detected at the doses of 0.9, 1.8, 3.6 and 5.4 kJ m-2 in A. fumigatus, 0.037, 0.077, 0.142 and 0.202 CPDs 10 kb-1 in A. nidulans, and 0.041, 0.085, 0.155 and 0.255 CPDs 10 kb-1 in M. anisopliae. The frequency of dimers in the M. anisopliae albino mutant DWR 180 (0.552 10 kb-1) was approximately ten times higher than of the wild-type ARSEF 23 strain (0.057 10 kb-1) after exposure to doses of 1.8 kJ m-2. DNA microarrays carrying sequence of 11,000 genes of A. fumigatus were used to compare transcriptomes of 20 h-old mycelia (initial phase of the conidiogenesis), 24 h (intermediate phase) e 25 h (final phase) with young mycelia transcriptome. Thirty-four genes displayed a statistically significant difference in expression (7 with increase and 27 with decrease mRNA expression) in 20 h-old mycelia, 101 genes (12 with increase and 89 with decrease) in 24 h-old mycelia and 76 genes (8 with increase and 68 with decrease) in 25 h-old mycelia. Some overexpressed genes (stuA ad the scytalone dehydratase gene) were previously related to specific phases of conidiogenesis but the function of most of them is unknown. Transcriptome analysis using microarrays was also used to identify genes modulated by exposures to UVB radiation (1,8 kJ m-2) in A. fumigatus young mycelia. One hundred and one differentially expressed genes were identified at the end of the exposure to UVB radiation (51 genes with increase and 50 with decrease). The radc gene displayed the higher increase in expression (approximately 16 ×). The function of most of the overexpressed genes is unknown. Four hundred and eighteen differentially expressed genes were identified 30 min after the end of exposure (51 genes with increase and 367 with decrease in expression).

Ultraviolet light is damaging but fish have evolved protective mechanisms, which allows them to live in shallow water reefs, high in UV radiation. This thesis details my investigation into the physiological ecology of solar ultraviolet (UV) absorbing compounds, known as mycosporine-like amino acids found in the external epithelial mucus, and examines the supporting role potentially played by a UV-induced DNA repair mechanism in coral reef fish of the Indo-Pacific. Using reverse phase chromatography and UV spectrophotometry, I examined whether the distribution of MAA compounds across different areas of the body is correlated with differential UV exposure. Comparisons were made between the MAA content and the absorbance spectra of mucus from the dorsal, ventral, caudal and head body surface areas in five species of Scaridae (Chlorurus sordidus, Scarus schlegeli, S. niger, S. psittacus and S. globiceps) from Ningaloo Reef, Coral Bay, Western Australia. All fish analysed had at least five MAAs present, and results showed that fish had increased UV absorbance in mucus over the dorsal area, which receives the brunt of UV radiation. Little UV protection was found in mucus from the ventral area, which receives the lower level of UV radiation mostly via reflection of the sand and reef surfaces. Furthermore, UV absorbance per mg dry mucus versus standard fish length showed that there is a positive relationship in C. sordidus with increasing size. I examined whether there is a difference in the quantity of UV screening compounds found in the mucus of fish along a longitudinal geographical gradient from inshore reefs (Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef) to the outer edge reefs to oceanic reefs (Osprey Reef). MAA absorbance increased with longitudinal distance from the mainland landmass of Australia to more oligotrophic outer reefs, where UV attenuation is reduced and the ocean is more transparent to UV wavelength. I determined that fish living on inshore, more turbid reefs where UV attenuation in shallow waters is high have lower levels of MAA protection than fish from clear oceanic reefs. Furthermore, there seems to be a direct relationship between light attenuation and exposure with the quantity of protective sunscreening found in the mucus of reef fish. It is know that UV irradiation decreases with water depth and that mucus from fish with deep habitats absorbs less UV than that of fish from shallow habitats. It is unknown however, whether this UV protection is variable within the same individuals and if so, how fast changes 11 occur. To test this, I relocated 9 ambon damselfish from a deep reef (18 m) to a shallow reef (1.5 m) to expose fish to increased levels of UV and relocated another 7 fish from a shallow to a deep reef to expose fish to decreased levels of UV. One week after relocation, all fish were returned to their original reef site to determine whether MAA levels would return to their initial levels. Fish relocated to a shallower depth were recovered and had a 60% (SD+/-2%) increase in mucus UV absorbance. Conversely, the fish relocated to a deeper depth were recovered and had a 41% (SD+/-1%) decrease mucus UV absorbance. No difference was found between UV absorbance of relocated and original fish at both depth. Six days after fish were returned to their original reef, mucus UV absorbance levels had returned to 67% +/- 4% of the original level. These results show that mucus UV absorbance is variable in individual ambon damselfish and that the sunscreen protection typical for a certain depth is reached in relocated fish within just a few days of relocation. The rate of MAA loss is higher than the accumulation of MAAs suggesting that diet is not the sole determining factor involved in the sequestration of MAAs to mucus. The cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus performs a mutualistic service by removing ectoparasites such as gnathiid isopods as well other dead infected tissue from its clients. Cleaner fish however are also known to feed on client mucus. The benefits of eating mucus until recently were unclear. In this study, we analysed the mucus of several cleaner fish clients to determine whether mucus feeding has a nutritional advantage over gnathiids and whether cleaner fish obtain their own MAA protection through this dietary mucus ingestion. Results show that host fish that are infected with gnathiids of poor nutritional value, in contrast to those that harbour gnathiids with higher nutritional value, continuously exude mucus that has both high nutritional value and high MAA content. These findings support the conclusion that in a competitive market for cleaners some host fish are forced to offer more than parasites to cleaners. Ultraviolet light that is not filtered by UV absorbing compounds such as MAA may still lead to DNA damage such as the formation of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) or 6-4 photoproducts (6-4 PPs). However, coral reef fish have alternative mechanisms to overcome UV induced damage via the photolyase DNA repair mechanisms. We experimentally demonstrated for the first time that a coral reef fish species, the moon wrasse Thalassoma lunare has the ability to repair DNA damage via photoreactivation. Fish both with and without MAA protection were irradiated with UVB wavelength to induce DNA lesions. Half of the experimental fish were then exposed to photoreactivating wavelength to induce DNA repair 12 while the other fish were blocked from the repair mechanisms. Fish which had undergone DNA repair had the lowest number of lesions regardless of mucus MAA protection. When fish were blocked from photoreactivation wavelengths MAA sunscreens clearly served a photoprotective role. The amount of damage was greatest in fish which both lacked MAAs and which were also blocked from photoreactivating wavelengths. Thus for the overall UV protection of fish both the MAA sunscreens as well as the DNA repair system play a significant role in counteracting UV damage. Ultraviolet protection by MAA sunscreens is ubiquitous in marine fish. To date the same 5 MAA compounds (palythine (λmax 320 nm), asterina (λmax 330 nm), palythinol (λmax 332 nm), usujirene (λmax 357 nm) and palythene (λmax 360nm) have been identified in the mucus of several different species of reef fish from Australia. Here we report the first evidence of the presence of additional UV absorbing compounds found in the mucus of fish from Indonesia. Using UV spectroscopy the mucus of four species of fish was compared between both geographical regions. The presence of an additional peak between 294-296 nm wavelengths suggests the presence of gadusol and/or deoxygadusol, which are photoprotective compounds, thought to be the precursors of MAAs. Thus, UV protecting compounds in the mucus of fish may not be as conserved between different regions as previously assumed. Our knowledge concerning the effect of UV radiation has advanced considerably in the past decade and my research findings contribute to the better understanding of protective mechanisms of marine fish. The correlations I have found between UV attenuation/exposure, depth, and longitude of sampled individuals lead me to believe that mucus UV absorbing MAA compounds are a highly efficient adaptive defence.