An advanced coursework and a project submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements of MSc. Engineering (Mining), November 2015 / General For mining operations, both underground and open cast, there are generally accepted criteria used to arrive at the optimum mining method with which to exploit the ore body economically. Having selected the optimum mining method, mining companies should then make the decision to also select the optimum technology to apply given the various options that are now available. In the case of a shallow massive ore body where open-pit mining has been selected as the optimum mining method, the use of conventional trucks and shovels has been the popular choice but over the years, as pit become deeper, and stripping ratios increase, growing interest and adoption of in-pit crushing and conveying for both ore and waste has been gaining ground with several mining sites currently now operating, testing the systems or conducting studies at various stages for In-pit Crushing and Conveying (IPCC) in its different configurations (Chadwick, 2010). Open pit mining general involves the movement of pre-blasted or loose waste ahead of underlying ore out of the pit or to a previously mined part of the pit. This is then followed by the drilling and blasting or loosening of the ore and transportation to the processing plant or stockpiles. The conventional Truck and Shovel open pit operation involves the use of shovels – electric rope shovels, diesel or electric hydraulic shovels or excavators or front-end loaders to load the blasted, or loose waste and ore material in the pit onto mining trucks which haul the material to crushers or stockpiles if it is ore or to waste dumps in the case of waste. In a Fully Mobile IPCC (FMIPCC) system, the broken or loose material in the pit is loaded into a crusher or sizer by a shovel, continuous miner or dozer, crushed to a manageable size and transported by conveyor belts to the waste dump where it is deposited in place using spreaders if it is waste or onto stockpiles if it is ore. A combination of the two systems is where trucks dump material loaded at the face into a semi mobile crusher or sizer located in the pit close to the loading points N BANDA 392438 before conveying to destination thereby reducing truck haulage distance. In the semi-mobile configuration, the crusher is relocated closer to the loading points to minimise the hauling distance. Other various configurations are also employed depending on the various considerations. Although the Truck and Shovel system is considered as the convention in open pit mining, the IPCC system is not a new concept and has been operational on a number of mines worldwide for quite a number of years (Szalanski, 2010). Loading and hauling receive great attention especially in a high volume open pit mines due to the high cost contribution to the overall operation and therefore, if optimised, good cost savings can be realised (Lamb, 2010). Figure 1: Sishen Mining Cost Breakdown In the case of Sishen Loading and Hauling costs constituted 67% of the mining costs including labour mining support services in 2013 (Kumba Iron Ore, 2013). This picture remains unchanged to a large extent. In some cases the hauling cost alone can make up as much as 60% of the mining operating cost (Meredith May, 2012) Selection of a materials handling system between Truck and Shovel (T/S) and In-pit Crushing and Conveying (IPCC) has proven to be difficult due to limited understanding of the IPCC system especially its advantages and disadvantages relative to the Truck and Shovel system. The aim of this research was to unpack these two systems in terms of their applicability using studies conducted at Sishen 6,5% 8,8% 29,1% 22,7% 9,7% 0,6% 1,3% 0,4% 7,0% 4,2% 3,7% 5,9% Sishen Mining Cost 2013 Blasting Drilling Hauling L&H Contractors Loading Maintenance Other Mining Manangement Mining Engineering Mining Other Resource Management SHEQ Mining Support N BANDA 392438 Mine as well as develop some scorecard that could be used to select one over the other one. Sishen Case Study Sishen Mine is an iron ore open pit mine located in the Northern Cape province of South Africa and is part of Kumba Iron Ore Company which is Anglo American PLC. The mine has been in operation since 1953 with the current life of mine going up to 2030. It produces 44Mt tonnes of product from a 56Mt mine ore at a life of mine strip ratio of 4. One of the planned expansion the north part of the mine known as the GR80 and GR50 areas. Mining in these areas will require pre-stripping of 290Mt of clay material over the life of mine to expose the ore in pre volume phases. Figure2: Sishen Pit –Sishen Mine 2014. Sishen mine is constantly evaluating various technologies in its mining operations aimed at improving its bottom line by way of increasing productivity and efficiency, reducing costs and improving safety, however, the last time that the mine considered evaluating a technology that significantly could have resulted in a totally different operational philosophy was i contracted to institute a study to evaluate technology options for mining and moving majority owned by a minimum of 437Mt of calcrete and the underlying pre- g in 2007 when Snowden Mining Consultants run-ofmine areas is in -planned time and were N BANDA 392438 55 Mt of the calcrete/clay material per year from the waste pushback area in the GR80/GR50 area of the mine from 2009 till 2030. Snowden completed the Prefeasibility study in early 2008 in which they evaluated a conventional Truck and Shovel operation as well as IPCC. Economic viability of both systems in various configurations was demonstrated with the use of larger trucks and shovels ranked as the most economic option in terms of Net Present Cost (NPC), unit owning and operating cost per mined tonne and, to a less extent, in terms of risk and other considerations. In this case, the Truck and Shovel option was more economic than both IPCC configurations. However the small difference in the cost figures gave rise to interest in further evaluations. Following the Snowden study, Sishen engaged Sandvik Mining and Construction in 2008, to review the work done by Snowden and provide more detail and practical input to the IPCC system at scoping level. In the review, the IPCC system was shown to be the economic approach for the waste removal from the target area in terms of owning and operating cost. Practicality was also demonstrated and the case for the consideration of the IPCC system was put forward to Sishen. A further consultant, Sinclair Knight Merz (SKM) of Australia, was engaged, in the later part of 2008, to further evaluate and optimise the IPCC option to further demonstrate practically in detail at a feasible study level and strengthen its case by mitigating perceived risk. This included equipment specifications, mine and equipment layout per period per bench and risk assessment on the IPCC options. The mine, however, implemented the conventional truck and shovel option using larger equipment. The final decision was to stick with the current set up of Truck and Shovel system and gradually replace the current fleet of 730E Komatsu (190 tonne payload) trucks with the 930E or equivalent ( 320 tonne payload) and the current XPB 2300 P& H electric rope shovels and CAT 994/Komatsu WA1200 front end loaders with XPC 4100 P&H electric rope shovels, Komatsu PC8000/Liebherr 996 diesel hydraulic shovels and LeTournea L-2350 front end loaders to reduce the number of equipment and manage the operational cost. This decision was based on issues around initial capital investment, flexibility of the system to suit changing mining plans, ability of current personnel to run the system and general low risk appetite for change. The adopted option has its own challenges N BANDA 392438 such as supporting infrastructure requirements, labour intensity and associated low productivity and high cost, fleet management challenges to achieve required productivity constantly, supplies such as fuel and tyres and safety issues due to traffic density. A high level recalculation of the costs using current information was done as part of this research. For simplicity, no escalations or discounting were applied on future expenditure. The estimated unit owning and operating costs in 2014 terms for the study area were as follows:- Fully Mobile IPCC (FMIPCC) option ZAR 10.38/t, Semi Mobile IPCC (SMIPCC) option ZAR 13.12/t, Truck and Shovel option ZAR 15.80/t. The objective of this research is to use lessons from the Sishen case as well as other operations and gather expert views with the aim of establishing criteria that could be applied in a preliminary evaluation that would determine the suitability of either of the materials handling options. General Approach The costs were recalculated using as much current information as possible. Other considerations including advantages and disadvantages of either of the systems were examined in more detail, with real life examples examined where possible. This resulted in the establishment of generalized criteria for the selection of mining and transport technology for a large open pit mine with focus on conventional Truck and Shovel systems on one hand and IPCC systems, in their various formats, on the other. These criteria which identify conditions necessary for the successful adoption and implementation of either of the systems could then be used as input into the decision to carry out any further detailed studies of the options. The previous study reports on the Sishen mine case were examined, input parameters to the calculations checked and the general approached analyzed for practicality. The relative costs were also viewed for comparative purposes. Literature on these two main systems was reviewed including that from conferences. Other large operations running either one or both systems were looked at to gain N BANDA 392438 further insight. Original Equipment suppliers’ views on these systems were also looked at through many articles in the public domain. Sishen mine has previously had the IPCC system running in the same part of the mine in a semi mobile configuration, crushing and conveying waste. It was then changed to become a supplementary system for the ore handling system and the in pit crusher has never been relocated. The Truck and Shovel system took over the movement of all the waste and most of the ore at the mine. Lessons from these experiences were incorporated in this study.

ABSTRACT Comparative study of established test methods for aggregate strength and durabilityof Archean rocks from Botswana In the current situation, river sand is used for building of roads and as raw material forconcrete in Botswana. River sand is a finite resource and important to preserve as itacts as natural water purification, groundwater aquifer and protection against soil erosion.Mining of bedrock may be a good alternative to replace the river sand with crushed rock(aggregates) in concrete and as road materials.The main purpose of this thesis was to determine if the rock grain size can be usedas a parameter to indicate durability and rock strength. It was also of interest to find outif the grain size correlates with established technical analysis and strength test methods.This knowledge can be used as a prospecting tool when searching for new quarry sites inthe future.In this master’s thesis, rock samples from the Gaborone granite complex have beenanalysed to examine how established test methods and the mineral grain size correspondswith the rock strength. By comparing technical properties (Los Angeles (LA) value ,aggregate crushing value (ACV), aggregate impact value (AIV) and 10 percent fines aggregatecrushing test (10 % FACT)) with quantitative analysis (mineral grain size andmineral grain size distribution), it is possible to determine the mineral grain size correspondenceto rock strength. Generally the result show that more fine-grained granitesshow better technical properties than more coarse-grained granites. The calculated meangrain size show weak negative correlation to ACV value, and a positive correlation to LA-, AIV- and 10 % FACT values. Best correlation can be seen between mean grain size andLA values (R2= 0.61) and AIV values (R2= 0.58). Low mean grain size tend to give bettertechnical properties in form of lower LA- and AIV values. The cumulative distributioncurve show that a high concentration of very fine material or fine material tend to contributeto a lower LA value. The results indicate that equigranular rocks with low meangrain size contributes to good technical properties, but when it comes to uneven grainedrock more factors must be taken into account to estimate technical properties.

Etapas de cominuição representam uma grande parcela do capital e custo operacional em uma usina de processamento mineral. Em 1983, Cohen estimou que os processos de cominuição podem ser responsáveis por 30% a 50% do consumo energético da usina representando tipicamente 50% dos custos operacionais de uma mineração. Sendo assim, sua otimização está diretamente relacionada com a redução destes custos de operação. Entre os equipamentos de britagem, o moinho de martelos é aquele dedicado às operações que visam a alta taxa de redução com geração controlada de finos. Este britador é recomendado para minérios friáveis e pouco abrasivos, apresentando alta capacidade produtiva. O presente trabalho tem por objetivo propor e validar um modelo matemático para modelagem e simulação de moinho de martelos, visando a simulação do circuito da britagem industrial de beneficiamento de minério de ouro do Córrego do Sítio I, localizada em Santa Bárbara - MG. As simulações visaram identificar gargalos operacionais e estabelecer cenários que permitam otimizar o circuito estudado. A amostragem foi executada conforme o plano traçado. As amostras obtidas foram utilizadas tanto para a caracterização do minério quanto para a calibração do modelo do Caso Base da operação da usina. As simulações indicaram acréscimos significativos de vazão de alimentação na usina, a partir do aumento da velocidade de rotação do moinho de martelos, com uma tendência de geração maior de finos no processo. Para simulação do aumento de velocidade de rotação dos martelos foi criado um modelo com base na energia de quebra das partículas, associada aos incrementos correspondentes na energia cinética dos martelos. A fim de validar o modelo proposto, foram planejados ensaios específicos em moinho de martelos de laboratório, e executados com o mesmo minério alimentado na usina industrial selecionada. Os ensaios consistiram em variações de velocidade de rotação dos martelos, de forma a corresponder às simulações anteriormente realizadas do equipamento industrial. O modelo criado foi validado com base em campanha experimental específica. / Comminution represents a large portion of the capital and operating cost of a mineral processing plant. In 1983, Cohen estimated that comminution processes could account for 30% to 50% of the power consumption of the mill, and typically represents 50% of the operating costs of a mine. Therefore, its optimization is directly related to reduction of these operating costs. Among the crushing equipment, the hammer mill is one which is dedicated to operations that aim for high reduction ratio with controlled generation of fines. This crusher is recommended for friable and low abrasive ores presenting a high productive capacity. This study aims to develop a stepwise approach that allows the use of the classical crusher model (Whiten-Andersen) in modeling and simulation of circuits containing a hammer mill, simulating the resulting product according to variation of rotation speed within the equipment. The existing model for crushers developed by Whiten-Andersen considers the Perfect Mixing Model, which represents crushing through equations related to selection and breakage functions, that provide an equilibrium condition. The present work aims at the validation of a mathematical model of hammer mill, aiming at a simulation of the circuit of the industrial crushing of gold ore of Córrego do Sítio I, located in Santa Bárbara - MG. The simulations aimed at identifying operational bottlenecks and establishing scenarios that allow optimizing the studied circuit. Sampling was performed according to the drawn plan. The samples obtained were used both for the characterization of the ore and for the calibration of the Base Case model of the plant operation. The simulations indicated significant increases in feed flow at the plant, due to the increase in the speed of rotation of the hammer mill, with a trend of higher generation of fines in the process. To simulate the increase of rotational velocity of the hammers, a model was created based on the energy of breaking of the particles, associated to the corresponding increments in the kinetic energy of the hammers. In order to validate the proposed model, specific tests were planned in laboratory hammer mill, and executed with the same ore fed in the selected industrial plant. The tests consisted of variations in the speed of rotation of the hammers, in order to correspond to the previous simulations of the industrial equipment. The model created was validated based on specific experimental campaign.

La fragmentation des matériaux est un phénomène qui entre en jeu dans de nombreux systèmes naturels et industriels, et à différentes échelles. D'un point de vue industriel, la fragmentation est d'une grande importance dans la production de granulats de carrière, qui sont soumis à des critères stricts en termes de tailles et de formes. Néanmoins, les phénomènes à l'origine de la fracture des matériaux restent encore aujourd'hui mal maîtrisés. Les méthodes aux éléments discrets permettent une modélisation des interactions à l'échelle de la microstructure du matériau. Un des avantages de ces méthodes est que la fissure apparaît et se propage dans l'empilement de manière naturelle, sans qu'il soit nécessaire de la décrire par modèles de fissuration.Un modèle aux éléments discrets permettant de représenter la cohésion au sein d'un matériau composé de particules de formes quelconques a été développé durant cette thèse. Des simulations numériques ont été effectuées pour deux types d'empilements représentant soit des matériaux cimentés, soit des matériaux “pleins”. Les résultats obtenus ont permis de confirmer que ce modèle est capable de reproduire le comportement macroscopique de la rupture de matériau fragile. Le modèle a été ensuite appliqué à l'étude de l'influence du positionnement de points de contact externes sur la résistance d'une particule cylindrique. Une étude expérimentale d'impact a été menée et a permis de confirmer ces résultats. Enfin, nous avons appliqué notre approche à la reconstruction de grains issus de données tomographiques. / The fragmentation of materials is a phenomenon which arises in several natural and industrial systems, and for a wide range of scales. From an industrial point of view, the crushing process is very important in the production of aggregates, which are often required to meet high criteria in terms of size and shape. However, the phenomena behind fracture of materials are still not completely understood. The discrete element methods allow to model interactions at the scale of the material micro-structure, by means of simple models. One of the advantages of this kind of methods is the natural way the crack initiates and propagates in the sample, without any need of a crack model. A discrete element model allowing to describe cohesion inside the material composed of particles of arbitrary shapes has been developed in this work. Numerical simulations have been conducted for two kinds of samples describing both cemented and plain materials. The results obtained have shown the ability of the numerical model to reproduce the macroscopic behavior of the fracture of a brittle material. The developed model has been applied to study the influence of the positioning of external contact points on the effective strength of a cylindrical shaped grain. The results have demonstrated an increase of the required force to break the grain depending on the position of the contacts. An experimental study has confirmed the numerical results. Finally, the model has been applied to the building of grains based on tomographic data.

Student Number : 9803381J - MSc Dissertation - Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment / Although pulsed power has been used in many parts of the world over the last few decades to initiate high-voltage discharges through rock, no systematic test work on South African ore bodies and related rock types has been done so far. As part of CSIR Miningtek’s integrated approach of combining underground comminution with a novel Tore© hydrotransport system, which has been shown to operate well with coarse particles up to 10 mm, various rock types were fragmented in single discharge mode under laboratory conditions. The work was conducted at the University of the Witwatersrand’s high-voltage laboratory with a custom-designed test rig. The rig configuration was based on a critical review and analysis of the literature and on assessments of existing test facilities elsewhere. Core samples with diameters ranging from 16 to 48 mm were cut from test specimens with thicknesses ranging from 8 to 48 mm. Rock types included Ventersdorp Contact Reef, Carbon Leader, Elsburg Formation, UG2 and Merensky, as well as pure quartz, shales, lava and dykes. A six-stage Marx generator provided a voltage rise time of 2 000 kV/μs to create a discharge through the rock, in preference to a discharge through the surrounding water, which acts as an insulator at ramp-up times faster than 0,5 μs. High-speed photography, and an analysis of the voltage and current signals for various rock types and for water alone, were used to quantify the potential benefits of rock breaking by electric discharge. It was found that some Kimberlite specimens and mineralised gold-bearing reefs were much easier to fragment than hanging wall or footwall material. Merensky reef appeared to be more susceptible than the less brittle UG2 material. A correlation was derived between the dynamic resistivity of various rock types, measured at 16 MHz excitation frequency, and the electrical breakdown strength at which discharge took place. The fragments created had a more cubical shape than would be created by conventional impact crushing. However, the high voltage requirements of about 30 to 35 kV per millimetre of rock thickness would necessitate not only efficient mechanical and electrical contact between the electrodes and the rock, but also considerable safety features for underground installations. The clearly identified, preferential fracturing of reef rock types, compared with the hanging or footwall materials, suggests that the greater benefit of electric rock breaking may lie in primary rock breaking as a mining method, rather than in secondary comminution of broken rock to enable hydraulic transportation by pipeline to surface.

O trabalho realizado estudou experimentalmente os efeitos do ultra-som terapêutico na prevenção de aderências tendinosas e no reparo tendíneo. Foi selecionado para o estudo o tendão flexor profundo do 3º dedo na transição das zonas 3 e 4 da pata dianteira direita de coelho. Foram utilizados 30 coelhos fêmeas adultas jovens, com peso corporal médio de 2,7 Kg, divididos em 3 grupos (A, B e C) de 10 animais, sob anestesia para a produção da lesão no tendão, feita por escarificação com o uso do bisturi e o esmagamento num segmento de 5 mm de diâmetro, utilizando um dispositivo de carga de 15 Kg, durante 10 minutos. As patas foram imobilizadas com órtese de material termoplástico durante todo o período experimental (21 dias). O ultra som terapêutico foi iniciado no 3º PO, e continuado por 7 dias consecutivos, com 5 minutos de duração. Foi empregado um ultra-som terapêutico, regulado na freqüência de 3 MHz, no modo contínuo, sendo que a intensidade de 0,2 W/'CM POT.2' foi aplicada nos animais do grupo A, 0,4 W/'CM POT.2' no grupo B e ultra-som desligado como placebo no grupo C. No 21º PO os animais foram sacrificados, e o tendão submetido à análise histológica. Os resultados foram submetidos à análise estatística e demonstraram que houve uma menor formação de aderência no grupo A. A aceleração do reparo tendinoso foi observada em todos os grupos / The work accomplished studied experimentally the effects of therapeutics ultrasound in prevention of tendon adherences and in tendon repair. The deep flexor tendon of the 3rd finger between zones 3 and 4 of a rabbit's right fore-foot was selected for the study. Thirty young adult female rabbits, with a body weight average of 2.7 Kg, divided into 3 groups (A, B, and C) of 10 animals each, were used. The tendon injury was made, under the effect of anesthesia, by reaming with the use of a scalpel, and the 5mm diameter crushing was made by the use of a device of 15 Kg load for 10 minutes. The feet were immobilized with orthesis made of thermoplastic material during all the experiment period (21 days). A therapeutics ultrasound, set at the frequency of 3 MHz, was applied. The intensity of 0.2 W/'CM POT.2' was applied to the animals of group A; 0.4 W/'CM POT.2' to the group B; and the equipment was off when applied to group C as a placebo. The therapeutics ultrasound was started in the 3rd PO and kept on for 7 consecutive days, with a duration of 5 minutes. On the 21st day the animals were sacrificed; the tendon was analysed histologically. The results were analysed statistically and showed that there was a minor adherence formation in group A. The acceleration of the tendon repair was observed in all groups

O Brasil necessita de uma ampla implantação de sistemas de saneamento básico, como os de águas pluviais e, principalmente, coleta e tratamento de esgoto. Para resolver este problema pode ser interessante o emprego de tubos de concreto. Apesar de recente, o estudo de tubos de concreto reforçados com fibras já possibilitou a revisão da norma brasileira NBR 8890:2007 que prevê a utilização das fibras como único reforço do componente. No entanto, apenas fibras de aço são permitidas. Apesar de terem um potencial de durabilidade maior do que os tubos convencionalmente armados, ainda há a possibilidade de ampliar sua vida útil se forem utilizadas macrofibras poliméricas, que são resistentes à corrosão eletrolítica e hoje se encontram disponibilizadas no mercado Nacional. A dúvida que permanece é se essas fibras conseguem apresentar o mesmo desempenho mecânico das fibras de aço. Assim, esta dissertação de mestrado tem por objetivo principal realizar uma avaliação comparativa de desempenho mecânico das macrofibras poliméricas e das fibras de aço destinadas ao reforço de tubos de concreto para obras de saneamento básico. De forma a possibilitar estas avaliações foi feita uma verificação de desempenho por meio do ensaio de compressão diametral, com controle de deslocamentos, em tubos de concreto reforçados com fibras. Complementarmente, foram feitos o ensaio de absorção de água, a determinação do teor de fibra incorporado ao concreto por meio de testemunhos extraídos dos tubos e o ensaio de compressão axial em corpos-de-prova moldados. Os resultados demonstraram que as macrofibras poliméricas não obtiveram desempenho mecânico satisfatório, principalmente no que se refere à resistência residual pós-fissuração do tubo. Tal desempenho só foi obtido com a utilização de fibras de aço, o qual apresentou o dobro da capacidade resistente residual das macrofibras poliméricas para o mesmo teor em volume. Dessa forma, os tubos de concreto de 1 m de diâmetro reforçado com fibras, analisados neste estudo, apresentaram dificuldade de obtenção do desempenho pós-fissuração, o que dificultou a aprovação nos critérios da NBR 8890:2007. Assim, para que estes tubos pudessem atingir as cargas especificadas nesta norma seria preciso aumentar o teor ou o comprimento das fibras, o que iria dificultar a moldagem dos tubos. / Brazil requires a wide deployment of systems for drainage and, especially, sewage collection and treatment. To resolve this issue may be interesting the use of concrete pipes. Although recent, the study of fiber reinforced concrete pipes has already enabled the revision of the Brazilian standard NBR 8890:2007. This standard allows the use of fibers as the sole reinforcement for the components. However, only steel fibers are allowed. Despite the possibility that fibers can provide a potential higher durability compared to the conventionally reinforced concrete pipes, there is also the possibility of extension of the pipe lifetime by the use of polymeric fibers. This kind of fiber is resistant to electrolytic corrosion and, nowadays, is available in the Brazilian market. The remaining doubt is if these fibers can provide the same mechanical performance of steel fibers. Thus, this work has the main objective of carried out a comparative evaluation of the mechanical performance of polymeric fibers and steel fibers reinforcement for drainage concrete pipes. In order to enable these assessments, a verification of mechanical performance was made through the crushing test, where the diametric displacement of the pipes was also measured. In addition, tests were made in order to measure the concrete water absorption, the fiber actual consumption determination in cores extracted from the pipes, and compressive strength determination. The results showed that the polymeric macrofibers did not reach satisfactory performance, especially regarding to the residual post-crack strength. Only the steel fiber reinforced concrete pipes were able to fit the requirements, which had twice the post-crack residual strength presented by the polymeric fibers with the same content by volume. Thus, the fibers reinforced concrete pipes with diameter of one meter, used in this experimental program, showed difficult to obtaining the post-cracking behavior, which turns difficult the approval in the Brazilian standard criteria. So, the pipes reinforced with polymeric fibers could only possibly reach the load levels specified for post-crack strength by the use of a higher content or an increased length of fibers, which would turns much more difficult the concrete pipes production.

Submitted by Maicon Juliano Schmidt (maicons) on 2015-05-08T19:21:55Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Mateus Rosa.pdf: 3353593 bytes, checksum: 4d6dedf924e0718583cacfeb4529296e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-08T19:21:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Mateus Rosa.pdf: 3353593 bytes, checksum: 4d6dedf924e0718583cacfeb4529296e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-12-19 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / PROSUP - Programa de Suporte à Pós-Gradução de Instituições de Ensino Particulares / O Brasil passa por excelente momento na construção civil. Esse fato faz com que ocorra grande demanda de materiais, consequentemente grande consumo de matérias-primas e grande impacto ambiental. Para a produção de argamassas de revestimentos, normalmente, é utilizada areia natural, proveniente de depósitos aluvionares. Este tipo de matéria-prima está escasso, possui alto custo, e afeta diretamente o meio-ambiente por ser uma matéria prima não renovável. Uma possível alternativa de agregado miúdo, para uso em argamassa de revestimento, é a areia de britagem, que já é utilizada como agregado miúdo para concretos. Este estudo avalia o comportamento de argamassas produzidas com areias de britagem. O objetivo é comparar o comportamento de uma argamassa de cimento, cal e areia proveniente de britagem de rocha basáltica, com a mesma argamassa utilizando-se areia natural, sendo adicionadas às duas areias, microfinos provenientes da própria britagem da rocha basáltica. Foram adicionados cinco diferentes porcentagens de microfinos, formando dez traços de areias, sendo cinco traços com areia natural de leito de rio (areia aluvionar) e outros cinco traços com areia de britagem de rocha basáltica proveniente de britador VSI, material normalmente classificado como finos de pedreira. Os aglomerantes utilizados foram o CP II Z- 32 e cal CH-I. O traço adotado foi de 1:1:6 em volume de cimento, cal e areia.Foi possível comparar e analisar a retração das argamassas fazendo relação com a fissuração. Os resultados alcançados neste trabalho mostram que é tecnicamente viável a substituição de areia natural por areia de britagem de rocha basáltica em argamassas de revestimento, com percentual de microfinos de 10%. Entretanto, são necessários estudos complementares para melhorar a granulometria e a forma das partículas da areia de britagem, permitindo um melhor acabamento superficial do revestimento e buscando viabilizar sua utilização sem a necessidade de acrescentar microfinos à areia de britagem para atingir um teor de 10%. / Brazil is going through a great time in construction, having an increase in demand of raw materials and a huge impact in the whole environment. In production of mortar coatings, it is commonly used natural sand from alluvial deposits. This type of raw material has a high cost, and affects directly the environment because it is a non-renewable. A possible alternative to fine aggregate are crushed aggregates, which is already used as aggregate for concrete. This research evaluates the behavior of mortars produced with basalt crushed fine aggregates. The objective is to compare the behavior of a cement, lime and sand mortar using crushed aggregates made from basaltic rock, with the same mortar proportion using natural sand. In all mortars microfine coming from the crushing of basaltic rock (using a VSI crusher) were added in five different percentages, 5 with natural sand and 5with crushed fine aggregates of basaltic rock. It was used CP II Z- 32 cement and CH-I lime, producing 1:1:6 cement, lime and sand mortars. It was analyzed the shrinkage and cracking of mortars. Results show that it is possible to replace natural sand by crushing basalt aggregates in a mortar coating using 10% of microfine. It is highly recommended to make complementary studies to improve the size distribution and shape of the crushed sand to provide a better surface finish to the coating and seeking allow their use without need to increase the powdery material to achieve the percentage of 10% of microfine.

The most useful dosage form taken from a patient's point of view is tablets because of its simplicity and portability (Takeuchi et al., 2004:132). Manufacturing of tablets can be done by wet granulation or direct compression of powders. For direct compression it is important that the powder has good particle flowability and compactability. Various methods to investigate these properties of the powder have been developed, which provide comparative indices to assist in the process and formulation design (Li et al., 2004:77). Chitin is the second most abundant naturally occurring biopolymer after cellulose (Asada et al., 2004: 169). Chitosan is produced by the partial alkaline N-deacetylation of chitin (Berger et al., 2004:36). The structure of chitosan is similar to that of cellulose, an excipient with acceptable compression properties. According to Olsson and Nystrom (2001 :204) hydrogen bonds are considered to be one of the dominating bonding mechanisms for most pharmaceutical powders. The extent of the effect will depend on the particle shape and surface characteristics (Hiestand, 1997:237-241). Considering the structure of chitosan it predicts the ability to form H-bonds, and produce tablets with acceptable mechanical strength. The two major problems identified in terms of the use of chitosan as directly compressible filler in tablet formulations is its poor flow and compressibility properties (Aucamp, 2004; Buys, 2006; De Kock, 2005). During the characterization of chitosan raw material the aim was to determine to which extend its physical properties affects the flow of the material and to compare its flow properties to that of other commonly used tablet fillers. Two batches chitosan were compared to each other to determine the effect of morphology on their physical properties. When ranking the composite index of the powders it was clear that in regards to the other materials used, chitosan was ranked the lowest. These results confirmed the poor flow of chitosan. The characterization of the two chitosan batches used in this study revealed significant differences in the morphology of the particles of the different batches. Because of these large inter-batch variations with respect to the physical properties of the different batches even when manufactured by the same company via the same method, these variations also affected the flow characteristics of the two batches. From the particle characterization in chitosan it could be concluded that the previously observed poor compression characteristics (De Kock, 2005; Aucamp, 2004) could be attributed to the low density and high porosity of the material. Only one of the batches studied could be compressed on a standard eccentric press, which could be attributed to the differences between the physical properties of two batches. Chitosan showed promising compression characteristics at specific machine settings (limited range of upper punch settings), with good crushing strength and low friabifity. The drawbacks of the compression properties for chitosan on the standard press was the relative low tablet weights that could be compressed for a specific die size and the narrow range for the upper punch setting to achieve an acceptable mechanical tablet strength and friability. The results of Buys (2006) showed promising results for chitosan when changing the compression cycle from a single fill to a double die fill for each compression cycle. The advantage of the modified eccentric tablet press in terms of improvement of the compactibility of low density materials was clearly demonstrated by the results from the compression studies of both chitosan batches. With the double fill cycle on the modified press it was possible to fill the die with a sufficient amount of powder to produce acceptable tablets with sufficient crushing strength and low friability. The modified tablet press made it possible to compress the batch (021010) chitosan which couldn't be compressed on the standard tablet press. Batch (030912), which was compressed on the standard as well as the modified press, showed improved results in the crushing strength and friability with increase of the percentage compression setting at a constant upper punch setting. Batch 030912 showed better results than that of batch 021010 and this could be attributed to the physical differences between the two batches. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

The most useful dosage form taken from a patient's point of view is tablets because of its simplicity and portability (Takeuchi et al., 2004:132). Manufacturing of tablets can be done by wet granulation or direct compression of powders. For direct compression it is important that the powder has good particle flowability and compactability. Various methods to investigate these properties of the powder have been developed, which provide comparative indices to assist in the process and formulation design (Li et al., 2004:77). Chitin is the second most abundant naturally occurring biopolymer after cellulose (Asada et al., 2004: 169). Chitosan is produced by the partial alkaline N-deacetylation of chitin (Berger et al., 2004:36). The structure of chitosan is similar to that of cellulose, an excipient with acceptable compression properties. According to Olsson and Nystrom (2001 :204) hydrogen bonds are considered to be one of the dominating bonding mechanisms for most pharmaceutical powders. The extent of the effect will depend on the particle shape and surface characteristics (Hiestand, 1997:237-241). Considering the structure of chitosan it predicts the ability to form H-bonds, and produce tablets with acceptable mechanical strength. The two major problems identified in terms of the use of chitosan as directly compressible filler in tablet formulations is its poor flow and compressibility properties (Aucamp, 2004; Buys, 2006; De Kock, 2005). During the characterization of chitosan raw material the aim was to determine to which extend its physical properties affects the flow of the material and to compare its flow properties to that of other commonly used tablet fillers. Two batches chitosan were compared to each other to determine the effect of morphology on their physical properties. When ranking the composite index of the powders it was clear that in regards to the other materials used, chitosan was ranked the lowest. These results confirmed the poor flow of chitosan. The characterization of the two chitosan batches used in this study revealed significant differences in the morphology of the particles of the different batches. Because of these large inter-batch variations with respect to the physical properties of the different batches even when manufactured by the same company via the same method, these variations also affected the flow characteristics of the two batches. From the particle characterization in chitosan it could be concluded that the previously observed poor compression characteristics (De Kock, 2005; Aucamp, 2004) could be attributed to the low density and high porosity of the material. Only one of the batches studied could be compressed on a standard eccentric press, which could be attributed to the differences between the physical properties of two batches. Chitosan showed promising compression characteristics at specific machine settings (limited range of upper punch settings), with good crushing strength and low friabifity. The drawbacks of the compression properties for chitosan on the standard press was the relative low tablet weights that could be compressed for a specific die size and the narrow range for the upper punch setting to achieve an acceptable mechanical tablet strength and friability. The results of Buys (2006) showed promising results for chitosan when changing the compression cycle from a single fill to a double die fill for each compression cycle. The advantage of the modified eccentric tablet press in terms of improvement of the compactibility of low density materials was clearly demonstrated by the results from the compression studies of both chitosan batches. With the double fill cycle on the modified press it was possible to fill the die with a sufficient amount of powder to produce acceptable tablets with sufficient crushing strength and low friability. The modified tablet press made it possible to compress the batch (021010) chitosan which couldn't be compressed on the standard tablet press. Batch (030912), which was compressed on the standard as well as the modified press, showed improved results in the crushing strength and friability with increase of the percentage compression setting at a constant upper punch setting. Batch 030912 showed better results than that of batch 021010 and this could be attributed to the physical differences between the two batches. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.