The present work was performed at Sherwin–Williams Sweden group AB with the objective of comparing short-wavelength light emitting diodes (UVB/UVC) with the conventional mercury arc lamp as a curing method of acrylate-based, UV-paint undergoing free-radical polymerization when exposed to UV-radiation. Due to environmental and health risks, mercury-doped radiation sources will be phased out in the near future, according to the United Nations Minamata convention, hence new alternatives are needed. Light-emitting diodes differ from the mercury arc lamp as they provide semi-discrete output intensity lines within the UV spectrum instead of a broad output distribution with several main intensity lines. The power output is also considerably lower compared to the conventional method which limits the irradiance and dose that are key parameters in activating and propagating free-radical polymerization of UV-paint. Seven different light-emitting diodes between 260–320 nm was examinedand compared to the conventional mercury arc lamp. Cured coatings were evaluated by measuring the relative extent of acrylate conversion with ATR-FTIR and micro-hardness indentation test. Both methods correlate to the relative cross-linking density and qualitatively describe the curing process for each radiant source at a specific irradiance and dose. Three different paint formulations with widely different properties were used in the experiments. All three paints were able to cure with one or several light emitting diodes at comparable doses and 10 to 20 times lower irradiance to the conventional mercury arc lamp, resulting in similar acrylate conversion and hardness.

Integration of dielectrics with increased porosity is required to reduce the capacitance of interconnects. However, the conventional dual damascene integration approach is causing negative effects to these materials avoiding their immediate implementation. A post-CMP curing approach could solve some of these issues. However, materials with porogens being stable at temperatures of the barrier-seed deposition process are not common, hindering this approach. Here, we report on an extended dual-damascene integration approach which permits post-CMP curing.

Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) has progressively gained interest because of its favorable strength and durability properties. Literature shows that curing temperature has a significant effect on the resultant mechanical properties of UHPC, generally resulting in increased compressive strength. However, limited datasets are currently available to ascertain the degree of change related to compressive strength as a function of curing temperature and conditions. This study investigates the effect of isothermal and submerged curing temperature conditions, ranging from 10°C to 90°C, on the compressive strength and elastic modulus development of UHPC and generates a numerical model to capture these effects. The extent and rate of compressive strength development in Cor-Tuf UHPC was found to increase with curing temperature, while only the rate of elastic modulus development increased with curing temperature. The numerical model shows reasonable agreement when compared with the experimental results and was successfully implemented in finite element analysis software.

<p>Superabsorbent polymer (SAP) hydrogel particles have been used as internal curing agents in concrete mixes as they are capable of absorbing and subsequently releasing large amounts of water. This reduces autogenous shrinkage during early stages of hydration. The size, shape, and composition of the hydrogel particles can be controlled during the synthesis, hence providing the opportunity to custom synthesize these internal curing agents to elicit desired structure-property relationships. Utilization of optimized dosage and formulation of SAP has the potential to improve the microstructure, durability, and strength of internally cured concrete. </p> <p>The first study focuses on the synthesis and application of novel composite hydrogel particles as internal curing agents in cementitious mixes. Composite polyacrylamide hydrogel particles containing two different amorphous silica–either nanosilica or silica fume–were used to investigate whether the internal curing performance of hydrogel particles could be enhanced. The dosage and type of silica, crosslinker amount were varied to identify the composite polyacrylamide hydrogel particle composition that provides optimum benefits to internally cured cementitious systems. The synthesized hydrogels were characterized by means of absorption capacity tests, compositional and size analysis. The beneficial impacts of the addition of composite hydrogels on cement paste microstructure are highlighted, including the preferential formation of cement hydration products (such as portlandite) within the hydrogel-induced voids that appeared to be influenced by the composition of the hydrogel particles. The interrelationship between extent of hydration, size of hydrogel voids, and void-filling with hydration products was found to strongly influence mechanical strength and is thus an important structure-property relationship to consider when selecting hydrogels for internal curing purposes. This study informs the design of composite hydrogel particles to optimize performance in cementitious mixes. Additionally, it provides a novel means of incorporating other commonly used admixtures in concrete without facing common challenges related to dispersion and health hazards.</p> <p>The second study focuses on the utilization of two retarding admixture-citric acid and sucrose-to custom synthesize composite polyacrylamides to investigate whether the composite hydrogels could delay hydration of cement paste. Isothermal calorimetry analysis results showed that composite sucrose-containing polyacrylamide hydrogel particles were successfully able to retard main hydration peak of cement paste, beyond the retardation capabilities of the pure polyacrylamide hydrogels. Thus, this study provides avenues of exploring the utilization of common admixtures to formulate novel composite hydrogels that imparts specific properties to cementitious systems.</p> <p>In another study, SAP formulated by admixture industries were used to investigate the feasibility of internal curing of bridge decks and pavement patches with SAP particles. The microstructure and early age hydration properties of SAP-cured cementitious systems were studied. Mitigation of microcracks in the matrix, along with portlandite growth in SAP voids, were observed in SAP-cured mortars. Presence of SAP also mitigated autogenous shrinkage and improved early age hydration as observed by isothermal calorimetry analysis. This thesis highlights some of the beneficial impacts of SAP-cured cementitious systems, and the potential to harness those benefits in large-scale applications of SAP-cured concrete.</p> <br>

The objectives of this research were to 1) monitor in-situ moisture and diffusivity for both conventional concrete and concrete containing pre-wetted lightweight fine aggregate (LWFA), 2) compare deck performance in terms of early-age cracking, compressive strength, and chloride ingress, and 3) compare concrete properties in terms of compressive strength, chloride permeability, elastic modulus, and water content in the laboratory using cylinders cast in the field at the time of deck construction. The research involved field and laboratory evaluations of four newly constructed bridge decks located in northern Utah, two constructed using conventional concrete and two constructed using pre-wetted LWFA to promote internal curing. Data from sensors embedded in the concrete decks indicate that the moisture content of the internally cured concrete was consistently 1.5 to 4 percentage points higher than the moisture content of the conventional concrete for the first 6 months following deck construction. By 1 year, however, the internally cured concrete showed little difference in moisture content compared to the conventional concrete. While the internally cured concrete decks had a higher average moisture content, the electrical conductivity values were not consistently higher than those measured on the conventional concrete decks during the first approximately 8 to 10 months. However, after 8 to 10 months, both internally cured concrete decks exhibited higher electrical conductivity values than those measured on the conventional concrete decks. Laboratory compressive strength data indicate that, for the first 6 months following deck construction, the two concrete mixtures exhibited very similar strength gain characteristics. However, at 1 year, the conventional concrete was stronger by an average of 12.9 percent, or nearly 900 psi, than the internally cured concrete. In rapid chloride permeability testing, the internally cured concrete consistently passed between 13.1 and 17.5 percent less current than that passed by the conventional concrete. Laboratory free-free resonant testing at 1 year showed that the modulus of the internally cured concrete was 3.9 percent lower, on average, than that of the conventional concrete. For the tested specimens, the moisture content of the internally cured concrete was 0.5 percentage points higher, on average, than that of the conventional concrete. In the field, Schmidt rebound hammer testing showed that the internally cured concrete was neither consistently stronger nor weaker than the conventional concrete. On average, the internally cured concrete exhibited higher chloride concentrations than the conventional concrete. On average, the conventional concrete bridge decks had 4.6, 21.5, and 2.8 times more cracking than the internally cured concrete decks at 5 months, 8 months, and 1 year, respectively. At 1 year, very distinctive reflection cracks from the joints between the underlying pre-cast half-deck panels were observed on all of the decks.

For the first time nonwoven fibrous scaffolds were electrospun from a low molar mass gemini ammonium surfactant, N,N–-didodecyl-N,N,N–,N–-tetramethyl-N,N–-ethanediyl-di-ammonium dibromide (12-2-12). Cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) and solution rheological experiments revealed micellar morphological transitions of 12-2-12 in water and water:methanol (1:1 vol). Electrospinning efforts of 12-2-12 from water did not produce fibers at any concentration, however, electrospinning 12-2-12 in water:methanol at concentrations greater than 2C* produced, hydrophilic continuous fibers with diameters between 0.9 and 7 μM. Photo-reactive surfactants were synthesized to electrospin robust surfactant membranes. Before electrospinning it was important to fundamentally understand the structure-property relationship of gemini surfactants. The thermal and solution properties were explored for a series of ammonium gemini surfactants using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), polarized light microscopy (PLM), and conductivity experiments. The Kraft temperature (Tk) was measured in water and water:methanol (1:1 vol) to investigate the influence of solvent on the surfactant solution properties. Other experiments investigate how associated photo-curable architectures are applicable in macromolecular architectures, to gain a fundamental understanding of how hydrogen bonding associations influence the photo-reactivity of functionalized acrylic copolymers. Novel hot melt pressure sensitive adhesives (HMPSAs) were developed from acrylic terpolymers of 2-ethylhexyl acrylate (EHA), 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate (HEA), and methyl acrylate (MA) functionalized with hydrogen bonding and photo-reactive functionalities. The synergy of hydrogen bonding and photo-reactivity resulted in higher peel values and rates of cinnamate photo-reactivity with increasing urethane concentration. Random copolymers of poly(n-butyl acrylate (nBA)-co-2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA)) were functionalized with hydrogen bonding and photo-reactive groups to explore the photo-curing of associated macromolecular architectures. The influence of urethane hydrogen bonding on the photo-reactivity of cinnamate-functionalized acrylics was investigated with photo-rheology and UV-vis spectroscopy. Cinnamate-functionalized samples displayed an increase in modulus with exposure time, and the percentage increase in modulus decreased as the urethane content increased. The synergy of hydrogen bonding and photo-reactive groups resulted in higher rates of cinnamate photo-reactivity with increasing urethane concentration. Electrospun fibers were in situ photo-crosslinked to develop fibrous membranes from cinnamate functionalized low Tg acrylics. Electrospinning was conducted approximately 55 °C above the Tg of the cinnamate acrylate and the electrospun fibers did not retain their fibrous morphology without photo-curing. However, electrospun fibers were collected that retained their fibrous morphology and resisted flow when in situ photo-cured during electrospinning. The intermolecular photo-dimerization of cinnamates resulted in a network formation that prevented the low Tg cinnamate acrylate from flowing. / Ph. D.

PTMO-urethane and urea diacrylates (UtDA, UrDA) were synthesized from a two-step reactions of bis (4-isocyanatocyclohexyl) methane (HMDI) with either α,Ï -hydroxy-terminated poly (tetramethylene oxide) (PTMO Mn 250, 1000, 2000 and 2900 g/mol) or α,Ï -aminopropyl-terminated PTMO and 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate (HEA). PTMO-based ester precursors (EtDA) were also synthesized from α,Ï -hydroxy-terminated PTMO (Mn 1000 and 2000 g/mol). Two bis acetoacetates were synthesized from acetoacetylation of 1,4-butanediol and 250 g/mol hydroxy-terminated PTMO with tert-butyl acetoacetate. ¹H NMR spectroscopy confirmed the structure and average molecular weights (Mn)of diacrylates. Mn of these precursors were in the range of 950 to 3670 g/mol by ¹H NMR. The rheological properties of diacrylates were studied and activation energies for flow were calculated. Activation energies increased with increasing Mn and hydrogen-bond segment content. Michael carbon addition was employed to covalently crosslink the precursors resulting in networks with gel fractions better than 90%. DSC and DMA experiments revealed that networks had a broad distribution of glass transition temperatures depending on Mn and degree of hydrogen bonding present in the diacrylates. Their Tg's varied from -61 ºC to 63 ºC depending on the crosslinking density and hydrogen-bonding segment content. TGA revealed that UtDA and UrDA networks had an improved thermal stability compared to their EtDA counterparts. Tensile properties showed a variation depending on the structure and Mn of diacrylate and BisAcAc precursors. The storage moduli of networks precursor change from 25.3 MPa to 2.0 MPa with increasing Mn of the urethane diacrylate Elongation at break increased from 255% to 755 % for the same networks. The Young's moduli increased from 3.27 MPa for EtDA 2000 to 311.1 MPa for UrDA 2000 which was attributed to increasing degree of hydrogen-bonding. Acid functionalization of C70 P Baytubes multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) generated acid-functionalized nanotubes (MWCNT-COOH). Suspension of MWCNT-COOH in organic solvents (chloroform, toluene, THF, DMF and 2-propanol) were prepared. DLS indicated average particle diameters of MWCNT-COOH in DMF and in 2-propanol were 139 nm and 162 nm respectively. FESEM of suspensions revealed aggregate free dispersion of MWCNT-COOH in DMF and 2-propanol. MWCNT-COOH containing composite networks were prepared. FESEM images of fracture surfaces of UtDA showed MWCNT-COOH were well-dispersed in the composites. DMA showed an increase in the rubbery plateau modulus which correlated with the MWCNT-COOH content in the networks. Tensile testing also revealed a relationship between MWCNT-COOH content and young's moduli and strain at break of networks. Storage moduli of networks increased from 25 MPa to 211 MPa with increasing MWCNT-COOH content whereas elongation at break decreased from 255 % to 146 %. UtDAs and pentaerythritol tetraacrylate (PETA) were crosslinked under UV radiation (6 passes, 1.42 ± 0.05 W.cm2 for each pass) in the presence of 2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone (DMPA) (1 wt. % of the mixture) UV initiator. DMA demonstrated the presence of broad glass transition regions with a range of Tg's which varied from -60 °C to -30°C. Tensile testing also revealed the relationship between Young's moduli, strain at break and the molecular weight of the diacrylates. The increasing molecular weight of urethane diacrylate precursors caused a drop in the storage moduli of networks from 15.8 MPa to 1.4 MPa and an increase in elongation at break from 76 % to 132 %. / Master of Science

The Deep Mixing Method (DMM) is a widely used, in-situ ground improvement technique that modifies and improves the engineering properties of soil by blending the soil with a cementitious binder. Laboratory specimens were prepared to represent soil improved by the wet method of deep mixing, in which the binder is delivered in the form of a cement-water slurry. To study the influence of curing temperature on the strength of the treated soil, specimens were cured in temperature-controlled water baths for the desired curing time. After curing, unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were conducted on the specimens. To investigate the optimum mix design for the wet method of deep mixing, UCS tests were performed to measure the strength of cured specimens, and laboratory miniature vane shear tests were conducted on uncured specimens to measure the undrained shear strength (su), which is used to represent the consistency of the mixture right after mixing. The consistency is important for field mixing because a softer mixture is easier to mix thoroughly. Based on the UCS test results, an equation that can provide a good fit to the strength data of the cured binder-treated soil is proposed. When the curing temperature was changed during curing, the UCS of the specimen cured at a low temperature and then cured at a high temperature was greater than the UCS of the specimen cured at a high temperature first. This seems to be due to different effects of elevated curing temperatures at early and late curing times on the cement reaction rates, such that elevating the curing temperature later produces a more constant reaction rate, which contributes to the reaction efficiency. An optimum mix design that minimizes the amount of binder while satisfying both a target strength of the cured mixture and a target consistency of the uncured mixture can be established by using the fitted equations for UCS and su. The amount of binder required for the optimum mix design increases as the plasticity of the base soil increases and the water content of the base soil (wbase soil) decreases. / Master of Science / The Deep Mixing Method (DMM) is a ground improvement technique widely used to improve the strength and stiffness of loose sands, soft clays, and organic soils. The DMM is useful for both inland and coastal construction. There are two types of deep mixing. The dry method of deep mixing involves adding the binder in the form of dry powder, and the wet method of deep mixing involves mixing binder-water slurry with the soil. The strength of the cured mixture is significantly influenced by the amount of added cement and water, the curing time, and the curing temperature. This research evaluates the influence of curing temperature on the strength of cured cement-treated soil mixture. Mixture proportions and curing conditions also influence the consistency of the mixture right after mixing, which is important because it affects the amount of mixing energy necessary to thoroughly mix the binder slurry with the soil. This research developed and evaluated fitting equations that correlate the cured mixture strength and the uncured mixture consistency with mixture proportions and curing conditions. These fitting equations can then be used to select an economical and practical mix design method that minimizes the amount of binder needed to achieve both the desired cured strength and uncured consistency. The amount of binder required for the optimum mix design increases as the plasticity of the base soil increases and the water content of the base soil (wbase soil) decreases.

<p>U savremenoj restaurativnoj stomatologiji dentalni kompoziti su materijal izbora za rekonstrukciju izgubljenog čvrstog zubnog tkiva. Kako je u kliničkoj praksi primećeno, pozitivna svojstva svetlosno-aktiviranih dentalnih kompozita su ugrožena pojavom polimerizacione kontrakcije kompozitnih ispuna tokom polimerizacije. Naime, tokom svetlosne polimerizacije usled konverzije molekula monomera u dugačke izukr&scaron;tane lance polimera, razvija se napon na adhezivnom spoju kompozitnog ispuna i zida kaviteta. Kada vrednost napona nadma&scaron;i jačinu adhezivne veze kompozita i zida kaviteta, formira se marginalna mikropukotina praćena kliničkim manifestacijama u vidu postoperativne osetljivosti, marginalne diskoloracije ispuna, razvoja sekundarnog karijesa i sledstvenih ireverzibilnih promena pulpe zuba. Cilj istraživanja je bio da se uporedi uticaj primene različitih tehnika postavljanja i svetlosne polimerizacije na marginalnu adaptaciju kompozitnih ispuna. Materijal i metode: Ispitivanje marginalne adaptacije kompozitnih ispuna urađeno je u dentinskim kavitetima, na bukalnim i oralnim povr&scaron;inama humanih trećih molara u laboratorijskim uslovima. Oralni i bukalni deo krunice zuba je bru&scaron;en dijamantskim diskom uz stalno hlađenje radnog polja vodenim mlazom, kako bi se izložila ravna dentinska povr&scaron;ina promera 4x4 mm. Standardizovani cilindrični dentinski kaviteti, dimenzija 3x3 mm, preparisani su dijamantskim cilindričnim svrdlima uz obilno hlađenje radnog polja mlazom vode. Eksperimentalni deo doktorske teze, imajući u vidu postavljeni cilj istraživanja, podeljen je u dva dela. Prvi deo je obuhvatio ukupno 80 dentinskih kaviteta u koje je postavljen isti kompozitni sistem (Adper Single Bond Plus-Filtek Ultimate Flowable), različitim tehnikama postavljanja: u jednom sloju-bulk tehnikom,&nbsp; inkrementalnom tehnikom, prethodno zagrejani kompoziti i eliminisanjem jedinstvene tačke stresa-postavljanjem pin-a. Za svetlosnu polimerizaciju kompozita primenjene su dve tehnike, kontinuirana i diskontinuirana, odnosno polimerizacija sa prekidom od 10 sekundi (dark interval), nakon inicijalnog perioda prosvetljavanja. Drugi deo istraživanja je obuhvatio 20 istovetnih dentinskih kaviteta u kojima su postavljeni bulk-fill kompozitni sistemi (Filtek Bulk Fill Flowable i SDR) uz kontinuiranu svetlosnu polimerizaciju, prema uputstvu proizvođača. Nakon poliranja ispuna, zubi sa postavljenim ispunima svih grupa su čuvani u uslovima 100 % vlažnosti u trajanju od 24 časa u cilju prevencije dehidratacije. Za evaluaciju marginalne adaptacije kori&scaron;ćena je analiza epoksi replika adhezivnog spoja kompozitnog ispuna i dentina skening elektonskom mikroskopijom (SEM). Naime, nakon uzimanja otiska ispuna i okolnog dentina polivinilsiloksanom izrazito niske viskoznosti (Ghenesyl, Super Light Body, Lascod, Florence, Italy), izlivene su replike u epoksi smoli koje su pripremljene za SEM analizu (Jeol, JSM-6460 Low Vacuum, Tokyo, Japan). Dužina marginalne pukotine je izmerena u mikrometrima pomoću ImageJ računarskog programa (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, USA) i prikazana procentualno u odnosu na ukupnu dužinu marginalnog spoja ispun-dentin. Međusobno su upoređeni rezultati marginalne adaptacije različitih tehnika postavljanja i polimerizacije kompozitnih ispuna kao i rezultati marginalne adaptacije različitih kompozita postavljenih bulk tehnikom i polimerizovanih kontinuirano. Statističke razlike su obrađivane primenom ne-parametrijskog Mann-Whitney U-testa. Rezultati: Analizom numeričkih rezultata utvrđen je statistički značajno vi&scaron;i kvalitet marginalne adaptacije kada su kompozitni sistemi postavljeni u kavitete eliminisanjem jedinstvene tačke stresa-postavljanjem pin-a i diskontinuirano polimerizovani, u odnosu na ostale ispitane tehnike postavljanja. Statistčki značajno niži kvalitet marginalne adaptacije utvrđen je u grupi ispuna postavljenih uz prethodno zagrevanje i diskontinuirano polimerizovanih. Nisu dobijene statistički značajne razlike u kvalitetu marginalne adaptacije kompozitnih ispuna postavljenih različitim tehnikama u dentinske kavitete, uz istovetni, kontinuirani režim svetlosne polimerizacije. Nisu dobijene statistički značajne razlike u kvalitetu marginalne adaptacije između kompozitnih ispuna postavljenih istom tehnikom, uz različit režim svetlosne polimerizacije. Nisu dobijene statistički značajne razlike u vrednostima marginalne adaptacije između dva ispitana bulk-fill kompozitna sistema. Takođe, ni njihovim poređenjem sa vrednostima marginalne adaptacije kompozitnih ispuna postavljenih bulk tehnikom i polimerizovanih kontinuirano nisu dobijene statistički značajne razlike. Zaključak: Tehnika postavljanja i polimerizacije značajno utiče na kvalitet marginalne adaptacije kompozitnih ispuna u dentinskim kavitetima. Novi proizvod na trži&scaron;tu ne znači uvek i bolja svojstva materijala u pogledu kvaliteta marginalne adaptacije.</p> / <p>In contemporary restorative dentistry, dental composites become material of choice for reconstruction of lost tooth structure. In clinical practice it is noticed that positive properties of light-activated composites are compromised by polymerization shrinkage appearance during polymerization. The conversion of monomer molecules into polymer network is accompanied by stress transmitting to the adhesive bond what leads to the formation of microgap with clinical symptoms such as postoperative sensitivity, marginal discoloration, secondary caries and pulp pathology. The aim of this study was to compare the influence of different placing and light polymerization techniques on marginal adaptation of composite restorations. Material and Methods Examination of marginal adaptation of composites was done in dentin cavities, prepared on the buccal and oral surfaces of human third molars in laboratory conditions. The buccal and oral enamel was ground using model trimmer under running water to expose a flat dentin surface area dimension 4x4mm. Standardized cylindrical cavities (3 mm diameter, 3 mm deep) with all dentin margins were prepared using diamond cylindrical burs with copious water cooling of the working field. Taking into account the goal of this study, research was consisted of two parts. First part included 80 dentin cavities with composite system (Adper Single Bond Plus-Filtek Ultimate Flowable) placed using different placing techniques: bulk, incremental, preheated composite and by elimination of singular stress point-with pin. There were applied two light-activation techniques: continuous (40 seconds) and discontinuous (2 seconds of activation, followed by 10 seconds of dark interval, and then the polymerization is set continuously). Second part of this study included 20 the same manner prepared dentin cavities with bulk-fill composites (Filtek Bulk Fill Flowable i SDR) placed and continuously polymerized, according to the manufactures instructions. After polishing, the restored teeth were stored in a container with 100% relative humidity for 24 h to prevent dehydration. Evaluation of marginal adaptation was done using SEM analysis of replicas. After making impressions with low viscosity polyvinyl siloxane material (Ghenesyl, Super Light Body, Lascod, Florence, Italy), epoxy resin replicas were prepared for SEM analysis (Jeol, JSM-6460 Low Vacuum, Tokyo, Japan). The length of marginal gap was measured with ImageJ software (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, USA) and shown in percentage relative to total length of the margin composite/dentin. Results of marginal adaptation were compared according to application of different placing and polymerization techniques and also results of marginal adaptation of different composites bulk placed and continuously polymerized. Statistical differences were calculated using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-test. Results: With statistical significance there was better quality of marginal adaptation when composite was placed with pin in order to eliminate singular stress point and discontinuously polymerized, compared to other applied placing and polymerization techniques. Contrary, there was significantly higher percentage of marginal gap obtained when using pre-heated, discontinuous polymerized composites. Marginal adaptation of composite materials placed in dentin cavities using different techniques and same, continuously polymerization technique didn&rsquo;t show statistically different results. Marginal adaptation of composite materials placed in dentin cavities using same technique and different, continuously or discontinuously polymerization technique didn&rsquo;t show statistically different results. Marginal adaptation of two &ldquo;bulk-fill&rdquo; composite materials didn&rsquo;t show statistically different results. Also, compared to composites placed using bulk technique and polymerized continuously, their lower values of marginal adaptation didn&rsquo;t show significant difference. Conclusion: Placing and polymerization techniques have significant influence on the quality of marginal adaptation of composite restorations in dentin cavities. New product on the market doesn&rsquo;t always mean better marginal adaptation properties.</p>

Betongindustrin ska enligt standard, varje vecka gjuta minst en kub per betongfamilj för att avstämma att hållfastheten som tillverkas inte understiger hållfastheten som kunden efterfrågat. Hållfastheten får inte vara lägre än den efterfrågade, men ingen standard påpekar hur mycket den kan överstiga. Dock kan en högre hållfasthet påverka konstruktionen negativt. En liten blandningsmassa tas ut från blandaren innan den skickas iväg till arbetsplatsen för att härdas i 28 dygn innan den trycks. Massan hälls i en kub och härdas i olika steg som ska utföras enligt standard. Det finns två olika härdningsprocesser, en enligt den svensk standarden och en enligt den europiska standarden. Det europeiska alternativet säger att betongkuben efter dag ett av härdning ska placeras i vattenbad med temperaturen 20±2 ºC fram till tryckningen. Den svenska standarden däremot säger att kuben efter första dagen av torkning ska härdas i vattenbad i 4 dygn och därefter placeras i ett härdningsutrymme med en relativ luftfuktighet mellan 40–80% med en temperatur på 20±2 ºC. Den luftlagrade ger en högre hållfasthet och ska därför räknas om med en omräkningsfaktor för att efterlikna den europiska standarden. Enligt de olika betongindustrierna kan dessa två härdningsprocesser ge samma hållfasthet vissa gånger, men andra gånger inte. Detta arbetet har därför gått ut på att jämföra de två processerna för att kunna komma fram till varför det kan variera och vad dessa faktorer beror på. För att kunna komma fram till ett resultat har arbetet valt att fördjupa sig i hållfastheten för betong genom litteraturstudier och även gjuta kuber som senare skulle tryckas för att se över hur hållfastheten varierar för de olika kuberna.   Det studien har kommit fram till är att kuber inte alltid kommer ge samma hållfasthet fastän de utgår från samma blandning och härdning. Detta på grund av att betong består av olika beståndsdelar såsom ballast med olika storlekar som är svårt att fördela lika mycket i varje kub. Utrustningen och genomförandet under kubgjutning kan även vara en faktor som kan påverka hållfastheten där en kub kan ha vibrerats eller blandats lite mer än de andra. En annan faktor som kan ha gjort skillnad mellan härdningsprocesserna är omräkningsfaktorn för kuber som har härdat i luftutrymmet. Den relativa fuktigheten i lokalen låg nära 40% för kuberna och omräkningsfaktor enligt standard ska vara den samma för den relativa luftfuktigheten mellan 40–80%, detta antas vara något som bör varas tydligare med då det i betonghandboken stod att omräkningsfaktor kan ändras beroende på hur många procent den ligger på. Detta är en av anledningar till att den europiska standarden anses vara den mer effektiva processen. En annan anledning är även att kuber i vatten hela tiden får tillräckligt med luft runt om, till skillnad från härdningsutrymmet där fuktigheten varierar konstant. / According to the standard, the concrete industry must, every week, cast at least one cube per concrete family to reconcile that the strength produced is not less than the strength demanded by the customer. To calculate the compressive strength of the concrete, two different curing processes can be used, both processes occur over 28 days and then can test the compressive strength. The processes are the Swedish standard and the European standard where the difference is the curing process and that’s the Swedish standard provides a higher strength and needs to be applied according to the European currency by means of a conversion factor. This work has therefore been to compare the two processes in order to be able to determine why it can vary and what these factors depend on.   This study has come up with that the cubes will not always give the same strength even though they are based on the same formula and curing. This is because concrete consists of different components such as aggregates with different sizes that are difficult to allocate as much in each cube. This is one of the reasons why the European standard is considered to be the more effective process.