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Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) and D-dopachrome tautomerase (D-DT) are the two human members of the MIF superfamily, which are implicated in an array of autoimmune disorders, inflammatory diseases, and cancer via their pleiotropic functionality. Despite only sharing 34% sequence identity, MIF and D-DT have high structural homology and overlapping functional traits, including activation of the type II cell surface receptor CD74 and keto-enol tautomerase activity. The MIF and/or D-DT-induced activation of CD74 leads to signaling cascades pivotal for cell growth, proliferation, and inhibition of apoptosis. Such characteristics make MIF and D-DT attractive molecular targets for drug discovery. Currently, all small molecule antagonists targeting the MIF/D-DT-CD74 axis primarily bind to the catalytic sites of these proteins. Nevertheless, the precise interplay between the catalytic residues and those crucial for CD74 activation remains enigmatic. Notably, alterations of catalytic residues, particularly the catalytic residue Pro1, have been shown to impede CD74 activation. Leveraging molecular dynamics simulations and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, we explored the dynamic coupling between the catalytically active N-terminus of MIF and surface residues pivotal for CD74 activation. Our investigation exposed previously unseen communication between the two sites and demonstrates the important role of MIF dynamics in the modulation of CD74 activation. The keto-enol tautomerization assay utilizing 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate (4-HPP) as a substrate has been instrumental in screening and characterization of MIF and D-DT variants as well as small molecule inhibitors. However, discrepancies between inhibition constant (Ki) values and Michaelis-Menten parameters raised concerns about the accuracy of results from this assay and the conclusions made from them. Our rigorous analysis identified that impurities present in substrate samples impacted the kinetic parameters of wild-type (WT) MIF as well as the Ki values of ISO-1, a well-studied inhibitor. Our findings, which were validated with multiple proteins, underscore the pronounced influence of substrate impurities on enzymatic activity. Thereby emphasizing the imperative of meticulously controlled experimental conditions for robust data interpretation. While the majority of drug discovery efforts were focused on MIF, D-DT remains relatively underexplored in this regard. The identification of 4-(3-carboxyphenyl)-2,5- pyridinedicarboxylic acid (4-CPPC) as the first reversible and selective D-DT inhibitor opened new avenues of research for the protein. Structural analysis of D-DT – 4-CPPC revealed a ligand- induced conformational change of the C-terminal region that has mechanistic value. This observation is in stark contrast to MIF, which needs a rigid C-terminal for tertiary structure stability. In order to elucidate the impact of C-terminal conformational flexibility, we employed molecular dynamics simulations and NMR experiments. We found that while the binding of 4- CPPC did not alter the folding or thermostability of the protein, it drastically altered the protein’s dynamics, allowing for the formation of new, long-range intersubunit communications. Subsequent endeavors aimed at identifying highly selective D-DT inhibitors that did not cause a conformational change of the C-terminal region yielded 2,5-pyridinedicarboxylic acid (1). This molecule exhibits a low micromolar potency and a remarkable 79-fold specificity for D-DT over MIF. Crystallographic analysis of the D-DT-1 complex displayed that the C-terminal of D- DT was largely unperturbed by the binding of 1 and delineated structural disparities between D- DT and MIF active sites, underscoring the potential for rational drug design strategies. Further in vivo studies focusing on the cytokine activity of D-DT showed the efficacy of 1 as an inhibitor of D-DT induced activation of CD74. These findings show that 1 is a useful mechanistic tool for interrogating the pathophysiology of D-DT. Despite these exciting discoveries, the role of the C-terminal region in the enzymatic activity and conformational flexibility of D-DT required further investigation. In-depth interrogation of seventeen protein variants and WT D-DT uncovered a previously unknown functional role of the C-terminal region. These insights deepen our comprehension of protein structure-function relationships and provides an invaluable foundation for future drug discovery studies targeting D-DT-mediated pathological conditions. Overall, via our thorough experimental interrogations, we uncovered key structural and functional information about MIF and D-DT that will serve as the basis for future mechanistic and drug discovery projects.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a rare, devastating disease with no cure. Current treatment consists of a cocktail of vasodilators which relieve symptoms of PAH but do not treat the cause. Thus, there is a need for novel drugs that target the underlying pathological causes of PAH. PAH is a multi-factorial, but one key contributor is the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6 which stimulates pro-inflammatory and pro-angiogenic signalling mediated by the JAK/STAT pathway. One way in which IL-6 signalling via JAK/STAT is inhibited is via SOCS3 in a type of negative feedback loop whereby IL-6 induces transcription of SOCS3, which then attenuates further JAK/STAT signalling. SOCS3 can also be induced by cAMP. This is interesting as prostanoids, a type of drug used in the treatment of PAH due to its vasodilator effects and the only type to show any efficacy improving the life expectancy of PAH patients, acts by mobilising cAMP. Thus, prostanoid stimulation of cAMP could potentially limit IL-6 signalling via the induction of SOCS3. This is a novel mechanism of prostanoids which has not previously been considered. This study investigated the capability of prostanoids to limit the pro-inflammatory/pro-angiogenic effects of IL-6 that enable PAH to develop. Initial experiments confirmed that vascular endothelial cells responded to prostanoids which increased SOCS3 and limited IL-6 signalling activity. Further experiments utilising SOCS3 KO endothelial cell models demonstrated prostanoid inhibition of IL-6 signalling was due in part to SOCS3. In conclusion, this project has confirmed that prostanoids do limit the pro-inflammatory effects induced by IL-6 and that this is in part due to SOCS3. Although the exact mechanism is yet to be discovered, it will be beneficial in the treatment of PAH as it provides currently unexploited drug targets which can be considered for future PAH therapies. / British Heart Foundation

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Yes / Recent clinical trials of the hypoglycaemic sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, which inhibit renal glucose reabsorption, have reported beneficial cardiovascular outcomes. Whether SGLT2 inhibitors directly affect cardiovascular tissues, however, remains unclear. We have previously reported that the SGLT2 inhibitor canagliflozin activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in immortalised cell lines and murine hepatocytes. As AMPK has anti-inflammatory actions in vascular cells, we examined whether SGLT2 inhibitors attenuated inflammatory signalling in cultured human endothelial cells. Incubation with clinically-relevant concentrations of canagliflozin, but not empagliflozin or dapagliflozin activated AMPK and inhibited IL-1β-stimulated adhesion of pro-monocytic U937 cells and secretion of IL-6 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). Inhibition of MCP-1 secretion was attenuated by expression of dominant-negative AMPK and was mimicked by the direct AMPK activator, A769662. Stimulation of cells with either canagliflozin or A769662 had no effect on IL-1β-stimulated cell surface levels of adhesion molecules or nuclear factor-κB signalling. Despite these identical effects of canagliflozin and A769662, IL-1β-stimulated IL-6/MCP-1 mRNA was inhibited by canagliflozin, but not A769662, whereas IL-1β-stimulated c-jun N-terminal kinase phosphorylation was inhibited by A769662, but not canagliflozin. These data indicate that clinically-relevant canagliflozin concentrations directly inhibit endothelial pro-inflammatory chemokine/cytokine secretion by AMPK-dependent and -independent mechanisms without affecting early IL-1β signalling. / Project Grant (PG/13/82/30483 to IPS and TMP) and PhD studentships (FS/16/55/32731 and FS/14/61/31284 to DB and AS) from the British Heart Foundation and an equipment grant (BDA11/0004309 to IPS and TMP) from Diabetes UK. OJK was supported by a Scholarship from the Iraqi Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. TAA was supported by a Libyan Ministry of Education PhD Studentship.

Résumé : L'activation des lymphocytes T CD8+ naïfs par un antigène nécessite deux signaux. Le premier signal est médié par le récepteur des cellules T (TCR) à la suite de son interaction avec le complexe majeur d'histocompatibilite (CMH) de classe I. Le deuxième signal est délivré par l'interaction des molécules de co-stimulation avec leur récepteur spécifique retrouvé sur les cellules présentatrices d'antigène professionnelles. Toutefois en réponse à la pression homéostatique, comme dans le cas de la lymphopénie, les lymphocytes T naïfs sont soumis à une prolifération sans stimulation antigénique par un processus appelé «prolifération induite par la lymphopénie (LIP)». LIP des lymphocytes T CD8+ naïfs nécessite IL-7, et un peptide du soi présenté pas le CMH de classe I. Des travaux récents de notre laboratoire ont montré que les cytokines homéostatiques IL-7 et IL-15 peuvent agir en synergie avec IL-21 et induire une prolifération antigène-indépendante des cellules CD8+ naives. Cette activation "sensibilise" les cellules à proliférer en réponse à une concentration sub-optimale de l'antigène spécifique au TCR. Également les cellules pré-stimulées avec des cytokines produisent davantage de cytokines effectrices telles que le TNFa et l'IFNy; et possèdent un potentiel plus élevé de cytotoxicity après stimulation avec un antigène spécifique. Dans mon projet de maitrise, j'ai étudié la possibilité que la pré-stimulation par les cytokines pouvait être un mécanisme important par lequel des cellules T CD8+ naïves qui sont potentiellement autoréactives soient stimulées pour provoquer une maladie auto-immune telle que le diabète de type 1. J'ai démontré cela en utilisant un modèle de souris transgéniques. Ces souris produisent des cellules T CD8+ qui expriment le TCR transgénique P14 (cellules PI4) , lesquelles reconnaissent un peptide antigénique dérivé de l'antigène glycoprotein (GP33) du virus de la chorioméningite lymphocytaire (LCMV). Nous avons montré qu'une pré-stimulation avec PIL-21 en présence de l'IL-7 ou l'IL-15, les cellules P14 acquièrent la capacité de répondre vigoureusement à des ligands peptidiques modifiés qui montrent une faible activité agoniste envers les cellules P14 naives. Les cellules P14 préstimulées qui sont re-stimulées avec des ligands peptidiques modifiés montrent des puissantes fonctions effectrices telles que la cytotoxicité et la production des cytokines effectrices TNFa et IFNy. Ces cellules induisent le diabète de type 1 lorsqu'elles ont été transférées dans des souris qui expriment l'antigène GP LCMV sous le contrôle du promoteur de l'insuline dans les îlots de Langerhans. Dans l'ensemble, nos résultats montrent que l'IL-15 et l'IL 21 produites durant une réponse inflammation chronique pourraient pré-stimuler des cellules T CD8+ potentiellement autoréactives, conduisant ainsi à des maladies auto-immunes. // Abstract : The activation of naive CD8[superscript +]T cells by an antigen requires two different signals. The first signal is mediated via the T cell receptor (TCR) following its interaction with the peptide presented on class-I major histocompability complex (MHC-I) molecules. The second signal is delivered via the co-stimulatory receptors upon recognition of their ligands on antigen presenting cells. However, in response to homeostatic pressure, as in lymphopenia, naive T cells undergo proliferation without antigenic stimulation through a process referred to as lymphopenia-induced proliferation (LIP). LIP of naive CD8[superscript +] T cells requires IL-7 and a self peptide presented by MHC-I, which implies that TCR signaling is needed for LIP of naive CD8[superscript +]T cells. Recent work from our laboratory has shown that with the homeostatic cytokines IL-7 and IL-15 synergize with IL-21 to induce antigen-independent proliferation of naive CD8[superscript +]T cells. Moreover, this cytokine-driven, antigen-independent proliferation "sensitizes" or "primes" naive CD8[superscript +] T cells to undergo robust proliferation in response to limiting concentrations of their cognate antigens. Cytokine-primed CD8[superscript +]T cells also abundantly produce effector cytokines, such as TNF? and IFN? and display a potent CTL activity following stimulation by antigen when pre-stimulated. In my project, I have investigated whether cytokine-induced priming could be an important mechanism by which potentially autoreactive naive CD8[superscript +]T cells are stimulated to cause autoimmune disease using a TCR transgenic mouse model of autoimmune type 1 diabetes (T1D). These mice harbor CD8[superscript +]T cells that express transgenic P14 TCR (P14 cells), which recognizes an antigenic peptide derived from the glycoprotein antigen (GP33) of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). We show that, following priming with IL-21 in the presence of IL-7 or IL-15, P14 cells gain the ability to respond robustly to modified peptide ligands that possess weak agonistic activity towards unprimed P14 cells. Furthermore, cytokine-primed P14 cells stmulated with weak TCR ligands displayed potent effector functions such as cytotoxicity and production of effector cytokines, TNF? and IFN?. These cells also induced T1D when adoptively transferred to mice that expressed the LCMV GP antigen under the control of the insulin promoter in the islets. Collectively, our findings show that IL-15 and IL-21 produced during chronic inflammatory conditions could cause priming of potentially autoreactive CD8[superscript +]T cells, leading to autoimmune diseases. [symboles non conformes]

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is a highly infectious virus affecting cloven-hoofed animals. The most prominent of its clinical signs is the development of vesicular lesions on the feet and in or around the mouth, which are a consequence of extensive FMDV-induced epithelial cell death. Currently, there is no certain biological knowledge on why extensive epithelial cell death occurs in some FMDV-infected tissues, but not in others. Using the epithelial tissues of tongue and dorsal soft palate as examples of a tissue where lesions occur and one that does not visibly exhibit FMDV-induced cell death, this work aims to identify the potential drivers of epithelial cell death and survival. A partial differential equation (PDE) model informed by experimental data on epithelial structure, is used to test epithelium thickness and cell layer structure as potential determinants. A second PDE model investigates FMDV-interferon (IFN) dynamics and their impact on the levels of cell death and survival, while an experimental study is undertaken to provide data for model validation. The work carried out casts light on the important role of a variety of factors including FMDV replication, IFN production and release, and IFN antiviral action.

Les interférons de Type I (IFN) sont des cytokines produites par les cellules en réponse à une infection virale. Les IFNs ont des effets pleïotropiques et parfois paradoxaux, protecteur ou néfaste pour l'immunité Innée ou adaptative. Certains facteurs intrinsèques (type cellulaire) peuvent expliquer une partie ces discordances. Mon travail de thèse s'est intéressé à l'effet du microenvironnement cytokinique sur la réponse IFN. En utilisant des analyses à large échelle, nous avons étudié la réponse IFN dans 4 contextes de polarisation des lymphocytes T auxiliaires (Th). Nous avons identifié 1/ un programme de transcription conservé et 2/ une réponse IFN flexible, modulant spécifiquement les principales fonctions des Th (cytokines, chemokines) en fonction du contexte polarisant. La réponse antivirale apparait aussi flexible avec une moins bonne protection des Th2 et Th17 contre l'infection par HIV-1et HIV-2. Nos résultats suggèrent que l'environnement cytokinique contrôle en partie la réponse IFN et peut ainsi moduler cette dernière dans différents contextes physiopathologiques.