The majority of South African household live in poverty with a limited variety of foods available in their home. In most rural villages domestic poultry plays an important role in improving household food security, but is limited by shortage of feed and high feed costs. Using non-conventional feed ingredients in poultry diets may ease the situation of malnutrition in rural populations, providing the family with high quality animal protein at more affordable prices. Macadamia oil cake meal (MOCM) is an inexpensive by-product from the macadamia oil industry of the Limpopo Province. Although it is relatively high in crude protein (20-25%), MOCM has never been considered as a feed ingredient for poultry feeds. The high and varying fibre content (up to 25%, depending on the extrusion method applied) of MOCM may render it unsuitable as an ingredient for high producing poultry such as broilers. The question, however, arouse whether the inclusion of MOCM in the growing diet of meat-producing chickens typically found in rural areas, would be cost-effective. Calcium (Ca) in poultry rations is usually supplied as calcium carbonate from limestone. Wood ash (WA) from fireplaces at homestead in rural villages was found to be rich in Ca (approximately 26%) and has the potential of being a free and readily available Ca supplement that could easily be added to the diet. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of MOCM and WA as alternative feed ingredients in growth rations for chickens in rural areas. New Hampshire chickens were randomly divided into eight treatment groups with four replicates per treatment and twelve chicks in each replicates. The chicks were housed in an environmentally controlled broiler house from day-old to 15-weeks of age. Four diets were formulated, one without MOCM and the other three containing different levels of MOCM, viz. 10, 50 and 100% plus salt and a trace nutrient mixture. Each of these treatments was split in two with one receiving limestone (CaCO3) and the other WA, as Ca sources, giving eight treatments in total. All the treatments received diets with a Ca level close to 1 %. Parameters measured on weekly basis were body weight (BW), feed intake (FI), and body weight gain (BWG) and feed conversion efficiency (FCE) was determined. The analysis of the carcass composition and tibia bone strength was done at the end of the 15 week period. An analysis of variance with the ANOVA model (SAS) was used to determine the significance between different treatments for the balanced data. Significance of difference (5%) between means was determined by multiple comparisons using Tukey t-test. The treatment of 100% MOCM was terminated at eight weeks since the chickens had retarded growth and low body weight gains, demonstrating that the 100% MOCM diet both with and without Ca were not feasible. The BW and feed intake of the diet of 100% MOCM plus WA was, however,significantly higher than the diet of 100% MOCM plus lime. However, the inclusion level of up to 50% MOCM had no significant differences in (muscle and fat), except for FI, BWG and FCE between treatment diets. In conclusion, the results prove that MOCM can be added to the ration at a 10% concentration level without any adverse effect on growth. Higher inclusion levels of MOCM might also be beneficial,especially when included at an older age of the bird. Wood ash proved to be an efficient Ca source, as the substitution of limestone with WA showed no negative effect on the tibia bone parameters measured. Copyright / Dissertation (MInstAgrar)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Animal and Wildlife Sciences / unrestricted

Cakes were prepared with high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) at 0, 50, 75, and 100% levels for replacement of sucrose by weight of sugar. The water was adjusted to allow for the moisture content of the syrup. All purpose flour and cake flour were used with each level of sweetener. There was no significant differences of specific gravity of the batters, but the addition of HFCS decreased the linespread which was an indication of increased viscosity of the batter. The crust color of the cakes was not significantly different, but the cakes prepared with cake flour were significantly lighter than those prepared with all-purpose flour. The sweetener used had a significant effect on the moistness and deformation of the baked cakes. Increased amounts of HFCS increased the moistness and decreased the deformation on tenderness of cakes. Cakes prepared with cake flour were significantly greater as measured by the index to volume. There were no flour x sweetener interaction in the objective data (p < .05). The taste panel rated the cakes prepared with 75 and 100% HFCS replacement for sucrose as more moist but less tender than 0 or 50% HFCS replacement. The crust color of cakes made with all purpose flour was rated darker. However, the crumb color of the cakes prepared with cake flour was rated lighter. The cakes prepared with 0, 75 and 100% HFCS replacement for sucrose and cake flour were significantly different in overall acceptability. The panel rated the cakes prepared with 0, 50, 75 and 100% HFCS replacement for sucrose with cake flour as the most acceptable. A satisfactory cake was made using 100% HFCS replacement for sucrose and cake flour. / M.S.

Data on characteristics of cakes is desirable to have for use by interested parties in making decisions about use of the product. Measurements on apparent viscosity, batter and cake characteristics: height, compressibility and moisture content were determined for cakes made with four fats and three egg products. Apparent viscosity of batter prepared did not predict the kind of cake that was produced. However, a viscous batter was obtained from cakes made with hydrogenated vegetable shortening and any of the egg products used. In addition, a thick batter was produced with Scramblers and any of the fats used. Considering the baked cake, height measurements were in agreement with those of compressibility. These characteristics (height and compressibility) were influenced by fresh whole eggs and hydrogenated vegetable shortening. However, fresh whole eggs did not have any effect on moisture content. In addition, it was concluded that using Lowe's (1955) mixing method, it was possible to use a vegetable oil with fresh whole eggs and get an acceptable cake. With egg substitutes, it was observed that a less tender cake with less height was obtained, but that the cakes were generally acceptable. Though not so much as a characteristic of cakes, but a measurement that was taken on the baked cakes, fatty acids were determined using gas liquid chromatography. / Master of Science

N-Flate™ and a sweetening system of 1.5% aspartame, 35.5% fructose, and 63% polydextrose (AFP) were evaluated for their potential as fat and sugar substitutes, respectively. Four cupcake variations were prepared to compare the effects of replacing shortening with N-Flate™, and sugar with AFP. The four variations were shortening/sugar, shortening/AFP, N-Flate™/sugar, and N-Flate™/AFP. The evaluation involved objective measurements of the batter and the baked cupcakes, and sensory evaluation of the cupcakes. Results of the objective measurements showed that the batter from the two variations prepared with N-Flate™ had a Significantly higher pH and specific gravity than the two variations prepared with shortening. A lower cake volume, a firmer texture, a higher moisture content, and a darker crumb color were also observed in the two variations prepared with N-Flate™. The batter from the two variations prepared with AFP also had a higher pH and specific gravity than the two variations prepared with sugar. A lower cake volume, a firmer texture, a higher moisture content, and a lighter crust color were also observed in the two variations prepared with AFP. Among the objective measurements, interaction effects were significant for specific gravity, volume, crust color and tenderness. Sensory evaluation results showed that the two variations prepared with N-Flate™ were less tender and have poorer cell uniformity than those prepared with shortening. Variations prepared with AFP were found to be less moist, have a more bitter crust and crumb, and better cell uniformity than those prepared with sugar. No interaction effects were observed for any of the sensory attributes. / Master of Science

Cakes were formulated with high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) as a replacement (0, 50, and 100% based on weight) for sucrose, and corn oil as a total replacement for hydrogenated vegetable shortening. Two different emulsifiers were used: sucrose esters (SE) or mono- and diglycerides (MDS). Nine different treatment variations were evaluated, which differed according to the level of HFCS (0, 50, and 100%) and the choice of emulsifier (none, MDG, and SE). Objective tests were performed on the cake batters, and both objective and sensory tests were applied to the baked cakes. Microscopic examination of the batter and cake supported the starch gelatinization observed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and the differences in dispersion of the oil phase with and without emulsifiers. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to predict the levels of HFCS required with and without emulsifiers to produce cakes of relatively high volume, moistness, tenderness and low aftertaste. Cakes prepared with HFCS as a partial or complete replacement for sucrose had acceptable objective and sensory characteristics when sucrose esters were used as the emulsifier and corn oil was used as the lipid source. RSM analysis predicted that a high-volume, moist, tender, and low-aftertaste cake would result if prepared with 3 g SE emulsifier and HFCS at a level of 0 to 39%. In an SE emulsified cake having total replacement of sucrose by HFCS, RSM predicted a high-volume, moist, and tender cake but with increased aftertaste. However, aftertaste may not be perceptible with the addition of a suitable flavoring to the cake formula. / Ph. D.

A theorem due to Scarf in 1967 is examined in detail. Several versions of this theorem exist, some which appear at first unrelated. Two versions can be shown to be equivalent to a result due to Sperner in 1928: for a proper labelling of the vertices in a simplicial subdivision of an n-simplex, there exists at least one elementary simplex which carries all labels {0,1,..., n}. A third version is more akin to Dantzig's simplex method and is also examined. In recent years many new applications in combinatorics have been found, and we present several of them. Two applications are in the area of fair division: cake cutting and rent partitioning. Two others are graph theoretic: showing the existence of a fractional stable matching in a hypergraph and the existence of a fractional kernel in a directed graph. For these last two, we also show the second implies the first.

<p>U okviru disertacije ispitana je mogućnost eksploatacije nusproizvoda (nastalih tokom procesa hladnog presovanja ulja) kao izvora prirodnih fenolnih kiselina. Odabir je obuhvatio uzorke uljane tikve, crnog kima, lana i nara. Radi oslobađanja vezanih fenolnih kiselina i u cilju procene njihovog ukupnog sadržaja i distribucije (u čvrstim uzorcima), primenjena je alkalna hidroliza sa dodatkom L-askorbinske kiseline i EDTA. Dobijeni rezultati pokazuju da se sve analizirane pogače mogu se koristiti za dobijanje vrednih fenolnih kiselina, pri čemu raspodela fenolnih kiselina zavisi od vrste uljane pogače. Koncentracija slobodnih fenolnih kiselina se pokazala značajnom za pogaču uljane tikve, estarski vezanih za pogače nara i lana, a nerastvornih-vezanih za pogače crnog kima i nara. Od svih analiziranih uzoraka kora nara je sadržala najvi&scaron;e estarski vezanih fenolnih kiselina zahvaljujući veoma visokom sadržaju galne kiseline. Nakon određivanja fenolnih kiselina u nusproizvodima, analiza glavnih komponenti (PCA) je omogućila razdvajanje biljnih uzoraka u grupe prema poreklu i smanjila broj fenolnih kiselina neophodnih za njihovu karakterizaciju, &scaron;to može imati potencijalnu primenu u skriningu fenolnih kiselina i određivanju kvaliteta/autentičnosti uljarica i njihovih nusproizvoda.</p> / <p>Within the thesis, the possibility of by-products (formed during the process of cold oil pressing) exploitation as a source of natural phenolic acids was examined. Selection of the samples included pumpkin, black cumin, flax and pomegranate. For the purpose of bonded phenolic acids release and for the total phenolic acids content and distribution (in the solid samples) assessment, the alkaline hydrolysis with the addition of L-ascorbic acid and EDTA was employed. The results show that all analyzed cakes can be used to obtain valuable phenolic acids, while the distribution of phenolic acids depends on the type of oil cakes. The concentration of free phenolic acids proved to be significant for a pumpkin oil cake, ester for pomegranate and flax oil cakes, and insoluble-bound for black cumin and pomegranate oil cakes. Of all analyzed samples, pomegranate hull contains the highest content of ester-linked phenolic acids, due to a very high content of gallic acid. After phenolic acids determination in the by-products, principal components analysis (PCA) allowed the separation of plant samples in groups according to origin and reduced the number of phenolic acids necessary for their characterization, which may have potential application in the screening of phenolic acids and determining the quality/authenticity oilseeds and their by-products.</p>

Appearances and first impressions are deceiving. My figurines represent the twisted world where everything on the surface appears to be perfect, but there are skeletons in everyone's closet.

Master of Science / Food Science Institute, Animal Science & Industry / Fadi M. Aramouni / In order to improve the quality of products available for consumers who require a gluten-free diet, this study examined the effects of heat and ozone treatments on sorghum flour functionality in gluten-free bread and cake. In the ozone treatment experiment, commercially milled food-grade sorghum flour was subjected to ozone at the rate of 0.06 L/min for 15, 30, and 45 minutes. In the heat treatment experiment, commercially milled food-grade sorghum flour was subjected to dry-heat at two temperatures (95ºC and 125º) for 15, 30, and 45 minutes. Characterization of flour from each treatment included measurements of flour pH, color, and pasting properties. Evaluation of bread quality from each treatment included measurements of specific volume, color, crumb properties, and crumb firmness. Evaluation of cake quality from each treatment included measurements of specific gravity, volume, symmetry, uniformity, color, crumb structure, and crumb firmness. Bake testing using ozonated sorghum flour in a high-ratio white layer cake formulation showed that volume significantly increased (p<0.05) as ozonation time increased. Additionally, longer ozonation exposure times increased cells per slice area, lightness, and slice brightness values in gluten-free cakes while reducing crumb firmness. Despite improving lightness and slice brightness values, ozonation did not significantly increase (p>0.05) the specific volume of gluten-free batter based bread. In the heat treatment experiment, the optimum time and temperature relationship for improving sorghum flour was 125ºC for 30 minutes. This treatment level produced bread with the highest specific volume (3.08 mL/g) and the most cells per slice area (50.38 cells/cm2). This treatment level also produced cakes with the highest volume (72.17 cc) and most cells per slice area (79.18 cells/cm2). Additionally, cake and bread made from this heat treatment was deemed more acceptable in comparison to the control during consumer testing. The control sorghum flour in both studies produced breads and cakes with low volume, poor crumb properties, and dense textures. These results can assist in the product development process in advancing the quality of sorghum-based gluten-free foods for the consumers who require a gluten-free diet.

A necessidade da criação de produtos inovadores com características funcionais está relacionada com a demanda de consumidores que priorizam o bem-estar vinculado a uma alimentação saudável e equilibrado. Nesse sentido, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar os efeitos da adição de succinil quitosana (SQ) como um substituto da fração lipídica e agente emulsificante sobre a qualidade de bolos. Para tanto, no capítulo 1 foi realizado um levantamento conciso da literatura para a compreensão dos temas abordados. No capítulo 2, o estudo da SQ se baseou na sua obtenção e caracterização para aplicaçãoem bolos. A análise de infravermelho e difração de raio X validaram as reações de desacetilação e succinilação, sendo que os estudos térmicos demonstraram estabilidade térmica (acima de 300 °C) viabilizando a utilização da SQ em produtos de panificação. A aplicação da suspensão de SQ (2,0 g/100 g) em massas de bolos com níveis reduzidos de gordura (0 % (controle), 25 %, 50 %, 75 % e 100 % (ausência total de gordura)) com ajustes na quantidade de água, para adaptação das consistências das massas, resultou em massas de bolos com parâmetros de viscosidade semelhantes. A redução de gordura até um nível de 50 % e presença de SQ contribuiu para o aumento da área 2D (de 13, 83 para 19,05 mm2) e razão largura/altura, além da umidade e atividade de água. A SQ influenciou significativamente (p < 0,05) na vida de prateleira, visto que a taxa de endurecimento foi de 27,8 (N/dia) para os bolos controle, e em bolos com nível de 25 % apresentou o valor de 26,1 (N/dia) e 49,2 (N/dia) para àqueles com presença total de SQ. Os teores de lipídeos diminuíram significativamente (p < 0,05), embora o conteúdo total de minerais e proteínas tenham apresentado ligeiras variações. Em relação à análise sensorial, foram atribuídas aos bolos com redução de até 50 % de gordura notas entre 6 e 7, e àqueles com 75 % de redução, nota inferior para os atributos de textura, sabor e aspecto geral. Dos provadores, 35 % \"provavelmente comprariam\" os bolos com 50 % de gordura. Nesse sentido, a SQ pode ser considerada um potencial substituto de gordura em bolos, podendo-se reduzir à metade a quantidade deste ingrediente em sua formulação original, agregando qualidades tecnológicas, sensoriais e nutricionais a esses produtos. / The need to create innovative products with functional characteristics is related to the demand of consumers which prioritize the well-being combined to a healthy and balanced diet. In this sense, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the addition of succinyl chitosan (SQ) as an emulsifying agent and lipid fraction substitute on the qualities of cakes. Therefore, in chapter 1 a concise survey of the literature was carried out to understand the themes covered. In chapter 2, the SQ study was based on its obtaining and characterization for application in cakes. Infrared analysis and X-ray diffraction validated the deacetylation and succinylation reactions, and the thermal studies demonstrated thermal stability (above 300 °C), allowing the use of SQ in bakery products. The application of SQ suspension (2.0 g / 100 g) with reduced levels of fat (0 % (control), 25 %, 50 %, 75 % and 100 %) adjusting the amount of water, to adapt the batter\'s consistencies, resulted in cakes with similar viscosity parameters. The reduction of fat up to 50 % and presence of SQ contributed to the increase of the 2D area (from 13,83 to 19,05 mm2) and width / height ratio, as well as moisture and water activity. SQ significantly influenced (p <0.05) shelf life, since the hardening rate was 27,8 (N / day) for control cakes, and in cakes with a 25% level the value was 26,1 (N / day) and 49.2 (N / day) for those with total presence of SQ. The lipid contents decreased significantly (p <0.05), although the total content of minerals and proteins showed slight variations. Regarding sensory analysis, scores between 6 and 7 were attributed to cakes with a fat reduction of up to 50%, and those with a 75% reduction were attributed a lower score, according to the attributes of texture, taste and overall appearance. From consumers, 35% \"I would probably purchase\" the cakes with 50% fat. In this sense, SQ may be considered a potential substitute for fat in cakes, and it can reduce the amount of this ingredient by half in its original formulation, adding technological, sensorial and nutritional qualities to these products.